LIBRARY 

OK  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

GHKT  <  >K 


"Received 
Accessions  No./a.        Cljss  No'. 


f 


\ 


THE 


PKINCIPLES 


OP 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAR; 

COMPRISING  THE  SUBSTANCE  OF  THE  MOST  APPROVED 
ENGLISH  GRAMMARS  EXTANT, 

WITH 

COPIOUS  EXERCISES  IN  PARSING  AND  SYNTAX; 


A  NEW 

HB  VISED,  RE  -ARRANGED  AND  IMPROVED 


FOR  THE  USE  OF  SCHOOLS'. 


BY  REV.  PETER  BULLIONS,  D.  D. 

LATH  PROFESSOR  OF  LANGUAGES  IN  THE  ALBANY  ACADEMY}   AUTHOft  OF 

THCK  SERIES  OF  GRAMMARS,  GREEK,  LATIN,  AND  ENaLISR,  ETC., 

ON  THE  SAJtfK  PLAN. 


NEW    YOEK: 
PUBLISHED  BY  PliATT,  OAKLEY  &  CO. 

*O.  21  MURRAY  STREET. 
?j|]R  1859. 

THB       <£K^ 

BB 

£'"*  .tf  ifSL.V- 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  Year  One  Thousand 
Eight  Hundred  and  Fifty-one,  by  KEY.  PETER  BULLIONS,  D.  D., 
ia  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Northern  District  of  New  York. 


llrj 


PREFACE. 


A  knowledge  of  English  Grammar  is  very  properly  considered 
nn  indispensable  part  of  an  English  education-,  and  is  now  taught 
as  such,  in  all  our  Academies  and  Common  Schools.  The  great 
number  of  elementary  works  which  have  recently  appeared  on 
this  subject,  is  a  pleasing  evidence  of  the  attention  which  has  been 
bestowed  upon  it.  Among  these,  none  has  enjoyed  greater  favor 
than  the  Grammar  of  LINDLEY  MURRAY  5  and  the  high  rank  which 
it  still  holds  among  the  numerous  works  which  have  appeared 
since  its  publication,  is  a  decided  testimony  to  the  soundness  of 
its  principles  and  the  excellence  of  the  system.  With  all  its  ex- 
cellence, however,  it  is  far  from  being  incapable  of  improvement; 
and  the  attempt  to  add  to  its  value  as  a  manual  for  schools,  by 
correcting  what  is  erroneous,  retrenching  what  is  superfluous  or 
unimportant,  compressing  wThat  is  prolix,  elucidating  what  is  ob- 
scure, determining  what  was  left  doubtful,  supplying  what  is  de- 
fective, and  bringing  up  the  whole  to  that  state  of  improvement 
to  which  the  labours  of  eminent  scientific  and  practical  writers  of 
the  present  day  have  so  greatly  contributed,  can  hardly  fail,  if 
well  executed,  to  prove  acceptable  to  the  public.  Such  was  my 
design  5  and  though  there  may  be  reason  to  regret  that  it  has  not 
been  undertaken  by  some  one  more  capable  of  doing  justice  to  the 
subject,  still  it  is  hoped  that  the  labor  bestowed,  in  order  to  carry 
it  into  effect,  will  not  be  altogether  in  vain. 

In  endeavoring  to  avoid  the  minutiae  and  diffuseness  of  the  larger 
Grammar,  care  has  been  taken  to  guard  against  the  opposite  ex- 
treme. The  abridgments  of  Murray  now  in  use,  are  little  more 
than  a  synopsis  of  the  larger  work-,  presenting  a  mere  outline  of 
the  subject,  altogether  too  meagre  to  be  of  much  service  to  the 
learner.  The  same  remark  is  applicable  to  a  great  number  of 
smaller  works  which  have  been  published  with  a  similar  view; 
namely,  to  serve  as  an  introduction  to  a  more  extended  system. 
They  are  incapable  themselves  of  imparting  a  satisfactory  know- 
ledge of  the  subject;  and  yet  it  often  happens,  perhaps  even  in  a 
majority  of  cases,  that  those  who  have  commenced  with  the  "  in- 
troduction," have  neither  the  time  nor  the  means  to  get  beyond 
it  :  and  besides,  unless  the  "introduction"  be  constructed  on  the 


IV  PREFACE. 

same  principle  of  arrangement  and  expression  with  the  one  which 
is  intended  to  succeed  it,  it  will  probably  be  found  worse  than  use- 
less-, for  when  a  particular  arrangement  and  phraseology  have 
become  familiar  to  the  mind,  there  is  great  difficulty  in  studying 
another  work  on  the  same  subject,  in  which  the  arrangement  ana 
expression  are  materially  different.  A  Grammar,  to  be  really 
valuable,  ought  to  be  simple  in  its  style  and  arrangement,  so  as  to 
be  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  youth,  for  whose  use  it  is  designed  $ 
comprehensive,  so  as  to  be  a  sufficient  guide  in  the  most  difficult, 
as  well  as  in  easy  cases  •,  and  its  principles  and  rules  should  be 
rendered  familiar  to  the  learner  by  numerous  examples  and  exer- 
cises. 

To  meet  these  views  of  what  a  Grammar  for  the  use  of  Schools 
ought  to  be,  the  present  compilation  has  been  made  :  with  what 
success,  a  discerning  public,  to  whose  judgment  it  is  respectfully 
submitted,  will  decide.  Utility,  not  novelty,  has  been  aimed  at. 
In  collecting  materials,  I  have  freely  availed  myself  of  the  labors 
of  others  who  have  treated  on  the  subject  since  the  days  of  Mur- 
ray, and  particularly  of  those  whose  object  has  been  similar  to  my 
own.  LENNIE'S  ''Principles  of  English  Grammar,"  deservedly 
esteemed  in  Britain  the  best  compend  for  the  use  of  schools  which 
has  yet  appeared,  I  have  adopted  as  the  ground  plan  of  my  work. 
The  works  of  MURRAY,  ANGUS,  CONNEL,  GRANT,  CROMBIE,  HILEY, 
and  others  in  the  extensive  collection  of  my  friend  Dr.  BECK,  to 
which  I  have  enjoyed  free  access,  have  been  consulted;  and  from 
all  of  them  has  been  carefully  selected,  condensed,  and  arranged, 
whatever  seemed  to  be  suitable  to  my  purpose.  For  several  va- 
luable suggestions,  also,  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  T.  R.  BECK,  and 
several  other  literary  friends,  who  kindly  examined  my  MSS.  be- 
fore they  were  sent  to  press,  and  freely  communicated  their  sen- 
timents. On  the  whole,  it  is  believed  that  there  is  nothing  of 
much  importance  in  Murray's  larger  Grammar,  or  in  the  works 
ef  subsequent  writers,  that  will  not  be  found  condensed  here. 

On  the  subject  of  Ktymology,  much  expansion  has  been  deemed 
unnecessary;  I  have  therefore  generally  contented  myself  with 
stating  results,  without  embarrassing  the  work  with  the  processes, 
often  tedious  and  obscure,  which  have  Jed  to  them.  In  the  clas- 
sification of  words,  almost  all  writers  differ  from  one  another;  and 
though  on  this  subject  there  has  been  much  discussion,  nothing 
has  yet  been  proposed  which,  on  the  whole,  appears  less  object 


PKEFACJS.  V 

tionable  in  principle,  or  more  convenient  in  practice,  than  that  of 
Murray,  which  is  therefore  generally  retained. 

In  Syntax,  greater  fullness  has  been  considered  proper.  In  the 
arrangement  of  the  Rules,  scarcely  two  writers  have  followed  the 
same  order ;  and  that  here  adopted  is  somewhat  different  from  any 
other.  Without  regarding  much  the  usual  division  of  Syntax  into 
Concord  and  Government,  those  rules  are  placed  first  which  ap- 
pear to  be  most  simple,  and  of  most  frequent  occurrence.  Care 
has  been  taken,  however,  to  connect  with  a  leading  rule  those  of 
a  subordinate  character  allied  to  it,  and  to  add  under  every  rule 
such  'notes  and  observations  as  appeared  necessary  to  its  illustra- 
tion. Numerous  examples  of  false  Syntax  follow  each  rule,  gene- 
rally on  the  same  page-,  also  examples  adapted  to  the  notes,  etc. 
are  subjoined,  distinguished  by  the  number  of  the  note  to  which 
they  belong.  For  the  purpose  of  better  exercising  the  judgment 
of  the  pupil,  there  have  been  introduced  at  intervals,  exercises  on 
the  preceding  rules  promiscuously  arranged;  and  at  the  end,  pro- 
miscuous exercises  are  furnished  on  all  the  rules  and  observations ; 
the  whole  forming  a  body  of  exercises,  containing  perhaps  not 
fewer  examples  than  Murray's  separate  volume  of  Exercises  on 
the  Rules  of  Syntax.  In  this,  economy  as  well  as  convenience 
has  been  consulted.  The  leading  principles  have  been  made  so 
prominent  by  being  printed  on  a  large  type,  that  they  may  be 
easily  studied  by  the  youngest  classes  without  a  separate  com- 
pend.  Every  thing  necessary  for  the*fuller  expansion  and  illus- 
tration of  these  principles,  has  been  introduced  in  its  place-,  and 
the  whole  furnished  with  questions  and  appropriate  exercises,  in 
order  to  render  every  part  familiar  to  the  mind  of  the  pupil  as  he 
advances,  so  that  no  larger  treatise,  and  no  separate  book  of  ex- 
ercises, will  be  necessary.  The  arrangement  of  the  exercises  on 
6-yntax  on  the  same  page  with  the  rule  which  they  are  designed 
to  illustrate,  it  is  believed,  will  greatly  diminish  the  labor,  both 
of  teacher  and  pupil,  in  going  over  this  important  part  of  the 
subject. 

Another  object  steadily  kept  in  view  in  this  compilation,  is  to 
render  it  a  profitable  introduction  to  classical  studies.  While  all 
languages  differ  from  one  another  in  their  modes  of  inflexion,  and 
in  some  forms  of  expression  peculiar  to  themselves,  usually  de- 
nominated idioms,  their  general  principles  are,  to  a  very  great 
axtent,  the  same,  ^t  would  §eem,  therefore,  to  be  proper,  in 

'  A* 


VI  PREFACE. 

constructing  grammars  for  different  languages,  that  the  prmci 
pies,  so  far  as  they  are  the  same,  should  be  arranged  in  the  sama 
order,  and  expressed  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  same  words. 
Were  this  carefully  done,  the  study  of  the  grammar  of  one  lan- 
guage would  be  a  very  important  aid  in  the  study  of  another  •,  and 
the  opportunity  thus  afforded, of  seeing  wherein  they  agree  and 
wherein  they  differ,  would  of  itself  furnish  a  profitable  exercise 
in  comparative  grammar.  But  when  a  Latin  grammar  is  put 
into  the  hands  of  a  boy,  differing  widely  in  its  arrangement  or 
phraseology  from  the  English  grammar  which  he  had  previously 
studied,  and  then  in  due  time  a  Greek  grammar  different  from 
both,  not  only  is  the  benefit  derived  from  the  analogy  of  the  dif- 
ferent languages  in  a  great  measure  lost,  but  the  whole  subject  is 
made  to  appear  intolerably  intricate  and  mysterious.  To  remedy 
this  evil,  I  resolved,  some  time  ago,  to  publish  a  series  of  Gram- 
mars of  the  English,  Latin,  and  Greek  languages,  arranged  in 
the  same  order,  and  expressed  as  nearly  in  the  same  words  as  the 
genius  of  the  languages  would  permit. 

This  series  has  now  been  some  time  before  the  public,  and 
has  been  received  with  a  degree  of  favor  far  surpassing  my  ex- 
pectations. 

PREFACE  TO  THE  REVISED  EDITION. 

New  plates  for  this  work  having  become  necessary,  the  oppor- 
tunity has  been  embraced  to  improve  the  work  in  such  a  way  as 
to  render  it  still  more  worthy  of  public  favor.  Several  of  the 
definitions  and  rules  have  been  rendered  more  strictly  accurate. 
In  many  places,  observations  and  remarks  have  been  introduced, 
where  they  seemed  to  be  necessary  to  complete  or  elucidate  tho 
subject.  ^The  etymology  of  the  article  which  stood  before,  is 
now,  as  it  should  be,  placed  after  the  noun-,  and  that  of  the  par- 
ticiple is  placed  with  the  moods  and  tenses,  before  the  inflection 
of  the  verb,  instead  of  coming  after  it.  In  these  two  instances 
only,  is  the  order  of  the  sections  changed.  In  the  verb,  the  de- 
signation and  arrangement  of  tenses  first  adopted  in  this  Grammar, 
but  which  were  subsequently  changed,  are  here  resumed,  being 
considered  as  altogether  better,  because  more  natural  and  appro 
priate.  The  former  designations,  however,  are  placed  in  paren- 
theses, (except  the  imperfect,  which  does  not  corrpctly  express 
the  import  of  that  tense),  that  teachers  may  adnnt«4ho9c  which 


PREFACE.  VII 

they  prefer.  In  the  observations  on  the  tenses,  an  attempt  has 
been  made  to  render  them  more  full  and  explicit-,  and  in  the 
inflection  of  the  verb,  negative  and  interrogative  forms  have 
been  introduced  after  the  active  voice. 

In  Syntax,  two  or  three  rules  have  been  altered,  where  it 
seemed  desirable  for  the  sake  of  greater  accuracy  and  simplicity. 
So  much  of  Rules  IV.,  V.,  and  VI.  as  referred  to  the  pronoun, 
has  been  omitted,  to  avoid  the  confusion  occasioned  by  uniting 
two  subjects  (the  verb  and  personal  pronoun)  under  one  rule,  and 
all  that  relates  to  the  Syntax  of  the  personal  pronoun  has  been 
placed  together  in  special  rules  under  Rule  X.  The  exercises 
under  these  rules  have  been  revised  and  made  to  correspond  to 
these  changes.  In  Prosody,  several  defects  have  been  supplied, 
and  the  article  on  Composition  has  been  considerably  enlarged. 

To  make  room  for  these  improvements,  the  lists  of  questions 
heretofore  interspersed  through  the  work,  and  the  utility  of  which 
has  been  questioned  by  distinguished  teachers,  have  been  removed 
to  the  end  of  the  book,  where  they  are  placed  together,  so  that 
they  may  be  used  or  not,  as  the  teacher  may  direct.  For  the 
same  purpose,  all  discussions  of  grammatical  questions  have  been 
removed  from  the  body  of  the  work  to  the  Appendix,  and  suita- 
ble reference  made  to  them  in  the  text.  In  this  position,  they 
interfere  less  with  the  regular  progress  of  the  work,  and  may  be 
consulted  at  pleasure.  By  this  means,  also,  an  opportunity  is 
afforded  of  discussing  the  several  subjects,  when  it  was  thought 
important,  at  greater  length  than  would  have  been  proper  in  their 
place  j  and  hence,  it  will  be  seen,  the  Appendix  has  been  consi- 
derably enlarged. 

By  means  of  these  arrangements,  the  leading  parts  of  the 
Grammar  are  made  to  occupy  nearly  the  same  place  as  before,  be- 
ing seldom  more  than  one  page  distant  from  their  former  position. 
This  revisal  of  the  work  has  been  gone  into  more  thoroughly 
now,  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  ever  hereafter  making  any  changes  j 
but  no  change  has  been  made  which  will  occasion  any  difficulty 
in  using  this  edition  with  the  other,  as  the  parts  introduced  foi 
the  most  part  belong  to  the  Notes  and  Observations,  very  seldom 
to  the  leading  parts. 

For  further  information,  reference  is  occasionally  made  to  the 
Analytical  and  Practical  Grammar,  in  which  the  subjects  generally 
are  treated  of  with  greater  fullness,  especially  in  Syntax,  than  IL 
this  compend. 


HI!  PREFACE. 

PLAN  OF  THIS  WORK. 

1.  In  this  work  the  leading  principles,  definitions,  and  rules, 
forming  hy  themselves  an  epitome  of  Grammar,  are  printed  in 
larger  type,  and  expressed  in  brief,  accurate,  and  simple  language, 
BO  as  to  be  easily  committed  to  memory. 

2.  All  that  is  necessary  to  fill  up  this  outline,  and  with  it  to 
forrr.  a  complete  school  grammar,  is  inserted  in  its  place  in  smallei 
type  in  Observations  and  Remarks,  not  to  be  committed  to  me- 
mory, but  to  be  studied  more  fully  in  connection  with  the  leading 
parts,  in  subsequent  reviews. 

3.  The  whole  is  perspicuously  arranged  under  distinct  sections 
and  heads,  all  of  which  are  numbered  separately  •,  and  now,  in 
addition  to  this,  all  the  paragraphs  are  numbered  by  a  running 
series  of  numbers,  rendering  it  easy  to  refer  to  any  particular  part. 

4.  At  the  close  of  each  part  of  speech,  and  frequently  at  inter- 
vals under  different  heads,  Exercises,  simple  and  easy,  are  intro- 
duced, for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the  pupil  familiar  with  each 
step  as  he  goes  along,  and  better  prepared  for  entering  on  that 
which  is  to  follow. 

5.  The  leading  rules  of  Syntax  always  stand  at  the  top  of  the 
page-,  and   under  each  is  presented,   in  special  rules,   in  small 
type,  or  in  observations  and  remarks  in  type  still  smaller,  all  that 
is  necessary  to  complete  or  explain  the  subject  of  which  it  treats  $ 
and  then,under  these  are  furnished  examples  of  false  Syntax  to  be 
corrected — an  exercise  of  great  importance,  to  render  the  princi- 
pies  previously  studied,  and  their  use,  familiar  to  the  pupil. 

6.  For  the  same  purpose,   numerous  examples  of  false  Syntax 
under  all  the  rules  are  furnished  at  the  end,  promiscuously  ar- 
ranged.    In  correcting  these,  it  will  always  be  proper  to  shew 
wherein  they  are  wrong,  mention  the  rule  which  they  violate, 
and  give  the  rule  or  the  reason  for  the  change  made. 

7.  In  Analysis  and  Parsing,  it  is  important  that  one  uniform 
method,  the  shorter  the  better,  provided  it  be  accurate  and  full, 
should  be  pursued-,  either  that  here  recommended,   or  such  othei 
as  the  teacher  may  prefer;  and  that  the  rules,  when  repeated,  be 
repeated  accurately  in  the  very  words  of  the  text. 

8.  The  subject  of  Composition,  at  the  end  of  the  book,  will  be 
a  profitable  study  for  the  pupil  after  he  has  studied  the  grammar, 
and  furnish  the  means  of  constantly  applying  its  principles. 

By  pursuing  this  method,  the  study  of  Grammar,  instead  of 
being,  as  it  is  usually  considered,  a  dry  and  laborious  exercise  of 
memory,  becomes,  from  the  first,  practical,  intellectual,  and  in- 
teresting-, so  that  with  but  little  labor,  almost  imperceptibly,  and 
in  a  very  short  time,  the  pupil  becomes  a  proficient  in  this  im- 
portant branch  of  study. 


INDEX  AND  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


GRAMMAR — as  a  Science — as  an  Art  PAGB  J 

Parts  of 1 

Questions  on 219 

PART  I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

ORTHOGRAPHY,  Definition  of  • 9 

Letters,  of • ......a 

Syllables,  of;  Division  of  words  into 3 

Spelling 3 

General  rules,  for ....4 

PART  II.— ETYMOLOGY. 

ETYMOLOGY,  Definition  of • 7 

Words,  Divisions  of • 7 

Parts  of  Speech.. 8 

P«rv»g    vvhat ;  Different  kinds  of • 8 

*    Wrvjn,  different  kinds  of  • 8,  9 

Accidents  of. * 9 

Person  of .9 

Gender  of 10 

Observations  on 11 

Number  of,  Plural,  Rules  for • 12 

Irregular. .13 

Observations  on 15 

Ca*e  of. • 16 

^Nominative,  use  of 16 

Construction  of,  a*  the  subject 89 

As  the  predicate.  •  •  •  •  • 104 

Independent 127 

Possessive,  how  formed,  use  of 16 

Observations  on 17 

Construction  of 105,  106 

Objective,  use  of 16 

Governed  by  Transitive  Active  Verbs 90 

By  Intransitive  Verbs •••90 

By  Prepositions. 92 

Of  time,  place,  weight,  value,  &c. 92 

Parsing  of,  Method  of 17 

Construction  of,  in  apposition 103 

n    ARTICLE,  Definition  and  use  of. • 18 

Construct  ion  of 128 

'  Parsing  of  the,  Method  of 19 

III.  ADJECTIVE,  Definition  of,  Observations  on,  Numerals 19 

Comparison  of,  and  Observations  on 20 

Irregular 21 

Construction  of  97 

Of  the  Comparative  and  Superlative"«-115,  116 

Parsing  of  the,  Method  of,   Exercises  on 22 

IT,  PaonenrNS,  Definition  and  division  of 22 

Personal,  Declension  of 22 

Observations  on • 23 

Parsing,  Method  of 23 

Construction  of 99 

Relative,  Definition  of,  &c 24 

Observations  on  *25 

Parsing,  Method  of 86 

Construction  of 10.1 

Interrogative,  what ;  Observations  or. ifll 


X  CONTENTS. 

IV   PBONOUNS,  Adjective,  Division  of 27 

Possessive '  ••••27 

Distributive... 27 

Construction  of 97 

Demonstrative 29 

Construction  of. 97,  98 

Indefinite 28 

Parsing,  Method  of. 53 

V.  VKBB,  Definition  and  Division  of 30 

Transitive  and  Intransitive,  defined  and  distinguished 00,  3 1 

Division  of,  in  respect  of  form 31 

Auxiliary,  what ;  Observations  en 32 

Inflection  of 34 

Voice,  Active  and  Passive  defined 34 

Observations  on  •••-... • 34 

Moods,  Definition  and  Distinction  of 35 

Observations  on. p 36 

Subjunctive,  Construction  of 112 

Infinitive,  Construction  of. 111 

Tenses,  Distinction  and  Definition  of • 37.  38 

Observations  on. 39 

Construction  of 124 

Participles,  Definition  and  Use  of.. 41,  42 

Present  Active,  in  a  Passive  sense 43 

As  a  Verbal  Noun 43 

Construction  of 109 

Number  and  Person  of 43 

Conjugation,  and  Forms  of.. 43,  44 

Regular,  to  love,  Active  voice,  Inflection  of 45 

Parsing  of  the.  Method  of 48,  40 

Negative  form  of •  •  50 

Interrogative  form  of • 51 

Progressive  form  of • .....55 

Passive  voice,  Inflection  of 55-57 

Exercises  on 58 

Irregular,  to  be,  Inflection  of.. 52 

Exercises  en 54 

Irregular,  list  of. • 59-64 

Defective  04 

Impersonal 65 

Exercises  on 65 

Construction  or  Concord  of,  with  its  Nominative 88 

With  two  nouns  in  connection 93 

taken  separately.. 84 

With  nominatives  of  different  persons.. 95 

With  collective  nouns 96 

VI    ADVERB,  Definition  and  use  of 65 

Classification  of,  and  Observations  on 66 

Parsing  of  the,  Method  of,  and  Exercises  on 68 

Construction  of. » 117 

Position  of 1  IS 

VII.  PREPOSITIONS,  Definition  and  use  of... • 63 

List  of,  and  Observations    on •••••68 

Parsing,  Method  of  and  Exerf^ses  on 70 

Construction  of.. • £2 

V III.  INTERJECTIONS,  List  of,  Use  of,  Observations  on 70 

Parsing,  Method  of.. 71 

Construction  of 120 

IX.  CONJUNCTIONS,  pefinition  and  Division  of. "1 

Parsing,  Method  of 79 

Construction  of 113,  114 

-PARSING.  Etymological,  Definition  of 73 

Specimens  of  ••• 74,  75 

Rules  for,  and  Exercises  in 70-85 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PARSING,  Syntactical,  Definition  of 132 

Specimens  of. 132-134 

PART  III.— SYNTAX. 

SYNTAX,  Definition  of 86 

General  Principles  of,  Parts  of 87 

RULES  OF— viz. 

,¥  I.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative.. 88 

Special  rules  under  Rule  I ••••89 

n.          A  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice,  <fc  c 90 

Special  rules  under  Rule  n. 91 

HI.         Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case,  &c 92 

IV.          Two  or  more  substantives  singular,  in  connection,  &c. .  93 

r. taken  separately,  &c 94 

VI.          A  verb  with  nominatives  of  different  persons 95 

vn.         A  verb  with  a  collective  noun 96 

vm.       An  adjective  qualifies  the  substantive,  &c 97 

IX.  When  two  persons  or  things  are  contrasted,  &c 98 

X.  Pronouns  agree  with   the  nouns,  &c 90 

XI.  The  relative  agrees  with  its  antecedent,  £c 10.1 

Special  rules  and  observations  under  Rule  xi. 10U 

XH.        Substantives  denoting  the  same  tiling,   <fcc 103 

xm.       The  predicate  substantive  after  a  verb,  &c. 104 

xiv.       The  possessive  case    105 

xv.         When  the  present  participle  is  used  as  a  noun,  &c 108 

.xvi.       The  present  participle  with  an  article  before  it,  &C----109' 

xvn.      The  past  participle  is  used  after  have  and  be ,  &  c 1 10 

xvin     The  infinitive  mood  is  governed,  &c. Ill 

Xix.       The  subjunctive  mood 112 

xx.        Conjunctions  connect  words  or  sentences 113 

xxi.      Some  conjunctions  have  corresponding  conjunctives- •• -114 

xxii.     Comparative  degree,  and  the  pronoun  other,  &c 115 

xxm.    Double  comparatives  and  superlatives,  &c 116 

xxiv.    Adverbs  modify  verbs,  &c.. 117 

xxv.     Adverbs  are  for  the  most  part  placed,  &c. 118 

xxvi.    Two  negatives  in  the  same  sentence,  &  c 119 

xxvu.  Prepositions  before  names  of  places 1 20 

xxvni. Certain  words  and  phrases  must  be  followed,  fee..  ••••••121 

xxix.    In  the  use  of  verbs,  &c. the  order  of  time,  &c. •••••124 

xxx.     When  a  member  of  a  sentence  refers  to  two  different 

clauses,  it  should  be,  &c. 126 

xxxi.    Case  absolute. 127 

xxxii.  The  article  A,  &c.. 128 

xxxiii.  An  ellipsis  is  admissible  when,  &c.. 130 

xxxiv  An  ellipsis  is  not  allowable  when,  &c 131 

SYNTAX,  Promiscuous  Exercises  on  Rules  of. 135-146 

Miscellaneous  Observations 1 46 

Improper  expressions  corrected 150 

PUNCTUATION,  Rules  for 151-157 

Abbreviations. 158 

Paragraphs 159 

Capitals 1« 

Rhetorical  divisions  of  a  discourse 160 

Composition,  different  kinds  of,  Prose. 160,  161 

Poetry 162 

Figures,  viz.  of  Etymology 163 

Of  Syntax  and  of  Rhetoric MM 

Poetic  license 166 

PART   IV.      PROSODY. 

PROSODY,  Definition  of. - 169 

Elocution 16£ 

Versification  * 171 

Iambic  Verse 172 


MI  CONTENTS. 

PROSODY,  Trochaic • 175 

Anapaestic ...........176 

Dactylic 177 

Mixed  Versea 179 

COMPOSITION,  Art  of. 180 

U§e  of  Grammar  in. 311 

Law  of  Language • 182 

Hints  for  correct  and  elegant  writing 184 

APPENDIX. 

I.         Grammar' •- 193 

n.        Classification  of  words 195 

m.      The  noun  or  substantive. » 196 

iv.       Person 197 

v.        Gender  of  nouns 197 

VI.       Case  of  nouns 198 

vn.      The  article 199 

vin.    The  adjective 201 

ix.       Comparison  of  adjectives 201 

x.         Pronouns 203 

XI.       The  pronoun  you 20? 

xii.      As  not  a  relative 203 

xm.    The  relative  what" 204 

xiv.    Adjective  pronouns. 205 

xv.      The  verb 207 

xvi.    Division  of  verbs.. • 208 

xvii.  Moods. 208 

xvni.  The  subjunctive  mood • 210 

xix.    The  participle  in  ins;  in  a  passive  sense  211 

xx.     Two  first,  three  last,  &c 215 

xxx.     First  and  second  • 217 


;VIUSIT7]J 


GRAMMAR. 


1.  GRAMMAR  is  both  a  SCIENCE  and  an  ART. 

2.  As  a  SCIENCE,  it  investigates  the  principles 
of  language  in  general.     When  thus  used,  it  is 
denominated  GENERAL  or  UNIVERSAL  GRAMMAR  ; 
and  sometimes  COMPARATIVE  GRAMMAR. 

3.  As  an  ART,  it  teaches  the  right  method  of 
applying  these  principles  to  a  particular  language, 
so  as  to  express  our  thoughts  in  a  correct  and  pro- 
per manner,  according  to  established  usage.  App.  I 


ENGLISH  GEAMMAE. 

4.  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  is  the  art  of  speaking  and 
writing  the  English  language  with  propriety. 

5.  GRAMMAR  is  divided  into  four  parts ;  namely, 
Orthography,  Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody. 

6.  Orthography  treats  of  letters  and  syllables , 
Etymology,  of  words ;  Syntax,  of  sentences  ;  and 
Prosody,  of  elocution  and  versification. 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


PART  FIRST. 


§  1.     ORTHOGRAPHY.* 

7.  ORTHOGRAPHY  treats  of  letters,  and  the  mode 
of  combining  them  into  syllables  and  words. 

8.  A  Letter  is  a  mark  or  character  used  to  represent  an  ele- 
mentary sound  of  the  human  voice. 

9.  There  are  Twenty-six  letters  in  the  English  Alphabet. 

10.  Letters  ere  either  Vowels  or  Consonants. 

11.  A  Vowel  is  a  letter  which  represents  a  simple  inarticulate 
sound ;  and  in  a  word  or  syllable  may  be  sounded  alone.     The 
vowels  are,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  w  and  y,  not  before  another  vowel  sounded 
in  the  same  syllable. 

12.  A  Consonant  is  a  letter  which  represents  an  articulate  sound 
and  in  a  word  or  syllable  is  never  sounded  alone,  but  always  in  con- 
nexion with  a  vowel    The  consonants  are,  b,  c,  d,  /,  g,  h,j,  k,  /,  m, 
n,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  v,  x,  z,  and  w  and  y  before  a  vowel  sounded  in  the 
same  syllable. 

13.  A  Diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels  in  one  sound. 
Diphthongs  are  of  two  kinds,  proper  and  improper. 

14.  A  Proper  Diphthong  is  one  in  which  both  the  vowels  ar« 
sounded-,  as  ou  in  out,  oi  in  oi7,  ow  in  cow. 

15.  An  Improper  Diphthong  is  one  in  which  only  one  of  the 
vowels  is  sounded-,  as  ou  in  court,  oa  in  boat. 

16.  A  Triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  in  one  sound 
as  cau  in  beauty. 


*  Orthography  is  properly  a  part  of  Grammar,  as  it  belongs  to  "  the  art  cf 
speaking  and  writing  a  language  with  propriety."  Yet  as  the  whole  subject  ii 
treated  more  fully  in  the  spelling-book  and  dictionary,  a  brief  synopsis  of  itr  pvia- 
ciples  only  is  here  given,  rather  as  a  matter  of  form,  than  with  a  view  to  its  Heing 
particularly  studied  at  this  stage.  The  teacher  may,  therefore,  if  he  thinks  proper, 
pass  over  this  part  for  the  present,  and  begin  with  PART  II. 


§   1.  ORTHOGRAPHY.  3 

SYLLABLES. 

17.  A  Syllable  is  a  distinct  sound  forming  the  whole 
of  a  word,  as  far ;  or  so  much  of  it  as  can  be  sounded 
at  once,  as  far  in  far-mer. 

18.  A  word  contains  as  many  syllables  as  it  has  dis- 
tinct rocal  sounds ;  as,  gram-ma -ri-an. 

19.  A  Monosyllable  is  a  word  of  one  syllables;  as, 
fox. 

20.  A  Dissyllable  is  a  word  of  two  syllables;  as, 
far-mer. 

21.  A  Trisyllable  is  a  word  of  three  syllable;  as, 
pi-e-ty. 

22.  A  Polysyllable  is  a  word  of  many  syllables. 

DIVISION  OF  WORDS  INTO  SYLLABLES. 

23.  The  division  of  words  into  syllables  is  called 
Syllabication. 

GENERAL    RULE. 

24.  Place  together  in  distinct  syllables,  those  letters 
which  make  up  the  separate  parts  or  divisions  of  a 
word,  as  heard  in  its  correct  pronunciation. 

25.  Two  separate  words  combined  as  one  name,  are 
usually  separated   by  a  hyphen;  as,  rail-road,   glass- 
house,  bee-hive. 

26.  In  writing,  a  word  of  more  than  one  syllable 
may  be  divided  at  the  end  of  a  line ;  but  a  monosyllable, 
or  a  syllable,  never. 

§  2.     SPELLING. 

27.  SPELLING  is  the  art  of  expressing  a  word  by 
its  proper  letters. 


4  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  2 

28.  The  orthography  of  the  English  language  is  so  anomalous 
and  in  many  cases  arbitrary,  that  proficiency  in  it  can  be  acquired 
only  by  practice,  and  the  use  of  the  spelling-book  or  dictionary. 
The  following  rules  are  of  a  general  character,  though  even  to 
these  there  may  be  a  few  exceptions: — 

GENERAL  RULES  FOR  SPELLING  WORDS. 

RULE  I. 

29.  Monosyllables  ending  with  /,  I  or  s,  preceded  by 
a  single  vowel,  double  the  final  consonant ;  as,  staff  mill, 
pass. 

Exceptions.  Of,  if,  as,  is,  has,  was,  his,  gas,  yes,  this,  us, 
thus,  pus. 

RULE    II. 

30.  Words  ending  with  any  consonant  except/,  I  or 
s,  do  not  double  the  final  letter;  as,  sit,  not,  up,  put, 
that,  in. 

Exc.  Add,  bunn,  butt,  buzz,  ebb,  egg,  err,  inn,  odd,  purr. 

RULE    III. 

31.  Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the  last 
syllable,  ending  with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a 
single  vowel,  double  that  consonant  before  an  additional 
syllable  beginning  with  a  vowel ;  as,  rob,  robber ;  admit, 
admittance,  admitted. 

Exceptions.  But  x  and  h  are  never  doubled. 

32.  But  when  a  diphthong  or  double  vowel  precedes, 
or  the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable,  the  consonant 
is  not  doubled ;  as,  boil,  boiling,  boiler ;  wool,  woolen ; 
fool,  foolish ;  visit,  visited. 

Exceptions.  In  about  fifty  words  ending  in  I  with  a  vowel  be- 
fore  it,  and  not  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  many  writers,  con- 
trary to  analogy  and  without  necessity,  double  the  /  improperly 


§  2.  ORTHOGRAPHY.  5 

before  an  additional  syllable.     T»hese  are  such  words  as  travtl, 
traveller,  travelling,  travelled.* 

So  also  s  and  p  are  generally,  though  improperly,  doubled  in 
bias,  worship,  and  kidnap;  as  biassing,  worshipper,  kidnapping. 
Webster,  and  many  writers  following  him,  in  these  words  conform 
to  the  general  rule. 

RULE    IV. 

33.  Words  ending  with  II  drop  one  /  before  the  ter- 
minations less  and  ly,  to  prevent  trebling,  as,  skill, 
skilless;  full,  fully;  and  some  writers,  before  ness  and 
ful;  as,  fulness,  skilful. 

34.  But   words  ending  in  any  other  double  letter, 
preserve  the  letter  double  before  less,  ly,  ness,  and  ful ; 
as,  harmlessly,  stiffly,  gruffhess,  etc. 

RULE  v. 

35.  Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
change  y  into  i  before  an  additional  letter  or  syllable ; 
as,  spy,  spies ;  happy,  happier,  happiest ;  carry,  carrier, 
carried ;  fancy,  fanciful. 

Exc.  1.  But  y  is  not  changed  before  ing;  as,  deny,  denying. 

Exc.  2.  Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel,  retain  the  y 
unchanged-,  as,  boy,  boys,  boyish,  boyhood.  But  lay,  pay,  say, 
make  laid,  paid,  said;  and  day  makes  daily. 

RULE   VI. 

36.  Silent  e  is  preserved  before  the  terminations, 
ment,  less,  ly,  and  ful;  as,  paleness,  peaceful,  abate- 
ment,  &c. 

*The  words  referred  to  are  the  following :  Apparel,  bevel,  bowel,  cancel,  carol, 
cavil,  channel,  chisel,  counsel,  cudgel,  dishevel,  drivel,  duel,  embowel,  enamel, 
empannel,  equal,  gambol,  gravel,  grovel,  handsel,  hatchel,  imperil,  jewel,  kennel, 
label,  level,  libel,  marshal,  marvel,  model,  panel,  parcel,  pencil,  peril,  pistol, 
pommel,  quarrel,  ravel,  revel,  rival,  rowel,  shovel,  shrivel,  snivel,  tassel,  tram* 
wel,  travel,  tiumel,  unravel. 

i* 


6  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  2 

Exceptions.  Duly,  truly,  awtful,  and  generally,  judgment,  ac- 
knowledgment, lodgment,  abridgment,  are  excepted.  Argument, 
from  the  Latin  argumentum,  is  not  an  exception. 

RULE    VII. 

37.  Silent  e  is  omitted  before  terminations  beginning 
with  a  vowel;  as,  slave,  slavish;  cure,  curable ;  sense 

sensible  ;  lodge,  lodging ;  love,  lovest, 

38.  Blame,  move,  reprove,  sale,  and  their  compounds,    some 
times,  though  improperly,  retain  c  before  able;  as,  blameable,  etc. 

39.  But  words  ending  in  ge  and  ce  retain  e  before  able,  in  order 
to  preserve  the  soft  sound  of  g  and  c;  as,  changeable,  peaceable, 
etc.   For  the  same  reason,  we  have  singeing  and  swingeing.  Dye 
has  dyeing,  to  distinguish  it  from  dying.     So  also  words  ending 
with  c  hard,  insert  k  before  a  syllable  beginning  with  e  or  i,  to 
preserve  the  hard  sound-,  as,  frolic,  frolicked,  frolicking. 

40.  The  letters  ie,  at  the  end  of  a  word,  are  changed  into  v 
before  ing;  as,  die,  dying;  lie,  lying. 

RULE    VIII. 

41.  Simple  words  ending  in  II,  when  joined  to  other 
words,  generally  drop  one  I  when  they  lose  the  accent ; 
as,  awful,  hopeful,  handful,  careful,  aheady. 

42.  But  when  they  are  under  the  accent,  the  double 
I  should  be  retained;  as,  fulfill,  willful,  recall,  foretell. 
But  until,  welcome,  always,  also,  withal,  therewithal, 
wherewithal,  have  single  I. 

43.  On  the  subject  of  this  rule,  however,  usage  is  far  from 
uniform:  falfil  and  fulfill,    wilful  and  willful,    recal  and  recall, 
foretel  and  foretell,  and  similar  varieties  are  common. 

44.  Other  compounded  words  are  generally  spelled  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  simple  words  of  which  they  are  formed  5  as,  glass- 
house, mill-wright,  thereby. 

45.  Many  words  in  English  admit  of  two  or-  more  different 
modes  of  spelling-,   as,  connection,  connexion;  enquire,  inquire; 
themistry,  chymistry,  etc.     In  such  cases,  prevailing  usage  and 
analogy  must  fee  our  guides. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


PART  SECOND. 


§  3.     ETYMOLOGY. 

46.  ETYMOLOGY  treats  of  the  different  sorts  of 
words,   their  various  modifications,  and  their  de- 
rivations. 

47.  WORDS  are  certain  articulate  sounds  used 
by  common  consent  as  signs  of  our  ideas. 

1st.  Words,  in  respect  of  their  Formation,  are 
either  Primitive  or  Derivative,  Simple  or  Compound. 

A  Primitive  word  is  one  that  is  not  derived  from  any  other 
word  in  the  language-,  as,  boy,  just,  father. 

A  Derivative  word  is  one  that  is  derived  from  some  other  word  $ 
as,  boyish,  justice,  fatherly. 

A  Simple  word  is  one  that  is  not  combined  with  any  other 
word-,  as,  man,  house,  city. 

A  Compound  word  is  one  that  is  made  up  of  two  or  more  simple 
words-,  as,  manhood,  horseman. 

2d.  Words,  in  respect  of  Form,  are  either  De- 
clinable  or  Indeclinable. 

A  Declinable  word  is  one  which  undergoes  certain  changes  of 
form  or  termination,  to  express  the  different  relations  of  gender, 
numher,  case,  person,  etc.,  which  in  Grammar  are  usually  called 
ACCIDENTS-,  as,  man,  men;  love,  loves,  loved. 

An  Indeclinable  word  is  one  which  undergoes  no  change  of 
form-,  as,  good,  some,  perhaps. 

3d.  In  respect  of  Signification  and  Use,  words 
are  divided  into  different  classes,  called  Parts  cf 
S-peecli, 


&  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  4,  5 

§  4.    PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

48.  The  Parts  of  Speech  in  the  English  language 
are  nine ;  viz.,  The  Noun  or  Substantive,  Article, 
Adjective,   Pronoun,    Verb,   Adverb,   Preposition, 
Interjection,  and  Conjunction.  App.  II. 

49.  Of  these,  the  Noun,  Pronoun^  and  Verb,  are 
declined ;  the  rest  are  indeclinable. 

50.  NOTE.  A  noun  is  called  also  a  substantive.   But  this  term, 
for  convenience,  is  here  used  in  a  more  comprehensive  sense,  to 
mean  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  an  infinitive  mood,  or  a  phrase  used  as  a 
noun,  and  usually  called  ua  substantive  phrase."     Thus  in  such 
a  rule  as  this,  uAn  adjective  agrees  with  a  substantive,"  etc.,  the 
word   substantive  may  mean  a  noun,   a  pronoun,  an  infinitive 
mood,  or  a  substantive  phrase. 

51.  PARSING  is  the  art  of  resolving  a  sentence 
into  its  elements  or  parts  of  speech,  stating  the 
accidents  or  grammatical  properties  of  each  word, 
and  pointing  out  its  relation  to  other  words  with 
which  it  is  connected. 

52.  Parsing  is  distinguished  into  Etymological  and  Syntactical. 

53.  A  word  is  parsed  Etymologically  by  stating  the  class  of 
words  to  which  it  belongs,   with   its  accidents  or   grammatical 
properties. 

54.  A  word  is  parsed  Syntactically  by  stating,  in  addition,  the 
relation  in  which  it  stands  to  other  words,  and  the  rules  according 
to  which  they  are  combined  in  phrases  and  sentences. 

§  5.     NOUNS. 

55.  A  NOUN  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or 
thing ;  as,  John,  London,  book.     App.  III. 

56.  NOUNS  are  of  two  kinds,  Proper  and  Common 


§  6  ETYMOLOGY.  9 

57.  A  Proper  Noun  is  the  name  applied  to  an  in- 
dividual only ;  as,  Albany,  Washington,  the  Hudson, 

58.  A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  applied  to  all 
things  of  the  same  sort ;  as,  man,  chair,  table,  book. 

59.  REMARK..  Proper  nouns  distinguish  individuals  of  the  same 
cl-dss  from  one  another.  Common  nouns  distinguish  sorts  or  classegt 
and  are  equally  applicable  to  all  things  of  the  same  class. 

60.  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Proper  nouns  denoting  persons,  usually  become  common  by 
having  an  article  prefixed-,  as,   uHe  is  the  Cicero  of  his  age." 

2.  Common  nouns  become  proper  when  personified,  and  also 
when  used  as  proper  names  •,  as,  Hail  Liberty!     The  Park. 

3.  Under  common  nouns  are  usually  ranked, 

1st.   Collective  nouns^    or  nouns  of  multitude,  which  signify 

many  in  the  singular  number-,  as,  army,  people. 

2d.  Abstract  nouns,  o*  names  of  qualities ;  as, piety ,  wickedness, 
3d.    Verbal  nouns,  01  the  names  of  actions,  or  states  of  being, 

as,  reading,  writing,  steeping.     (195.) 

ACCIDENTS  OF  THE  NOUN. 

61.  To  NOUNS  belong  Person,  Gender,  Number, 
and  Case. 

§  6.    PERSON. 

62.  PERSON,  in  grammar,  is  the  relation  of  a  noun 
or  pronoun  to  whai  is  said  in  discourse.   There  are 
three  persons ;  the  first,  second,  and  third.  App.  IV. 

63.  A  noun  is  in  the  first  person,  when  it  denotes  the 
speaker  or  writer;  as,  "  I    Paul   have  written  it." 

64.  A  noun  is  in  the  second  person,  when  it  denotes 
the  person  or  thing  addressed ;  as,  "  Thou,  God,  seest 
me."  —  "  Hail,  Liberty  !  " 

65.  A  noun  is  in  the  third  person,  when  it  denotes 
the  person  or  thing  spoken  of;  as,  "Truth  is  mighty." 


10 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


§  7.     GENDER. 

66.  GENDER   is   the  distinction  of  nouns   with 
regard  to  Sex.   There  are  three  genders,  the  Mas- 
culine, Feminine,  and  Neuter.     App.  V. 

67.  Nouns   denoting  males  are  Masculine ;  as, 
man,  boy. 

68.  Nouns  denoting  females  are  Feminine ;  as, 
woman,  girl. 

69.  Nouns  denoting  neither  males  nor  females 
are  Neuter ;  as,  book,  house,  field. 

70.  There  are  three  ways  of  distinguishing  the  sexes: 

1.  By  different  words ;  as, 


Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female 

Bachelor 

maid 

Horse 

marc 

Beau 

belle 

Husband 

wife 

Boy 

girl 

King 

queer; 

Brother 

sister 

Lord 

lady 

Buck 

doe 

Man 

woman 

Bull 

cow 

Master 

mistress 

Drake 

duck 

Nephew 

niece 

Earl 

countess 

Ram,  buck 

ewe 

Father 

mother 

Son 

daughter 

Friar 

nun 

Stag 

hind 

Gander 

goose 

Uncle 

aunt 

Hart 

roe 

Wizzard 

witch 

2.  By  a  difference 

of  termination;  as, 

Abbot 

abbess 

Bridegroom 

bride 

Actor 

actress 

Benefactor 

benefactress 

Administrator 

administratrix 

Count 

countess 

Adulterer 

adulteress 

Deacon 

deaconess 

Ambassador 

ambassadress 

Duke 

duchess 

Arbiter 

arbitress 

Elector 

electress 

Author    (often) 

authoress 

Emperor 

empress 

Baron 

baroness 

Enchanter 

enchantress 

§7. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


I] 


Male. 
.Executor 
Governor 
Heir 
Hero 
Hunter 
Host 
Jew 

Landgrave 
Lion 
Marquis 
Mayor 
Patron 
Peer 
Poet 
Priest 


Female. 

executrix 

governess 

heiress 

heroine 

huntress 

hostess 

Jewess 

landgravine 

lioness 

marchioness 

mayoress 

patroness 

peeress 

poetess 

priestess 

3.  By  prefixing  a 

A  cock  sparrow. 
A  he  goat. 
A  man  servant. 
A  male  child. 
Male  descendants. 


Male. 
Prince 
Prior 
Prophet 
Protector 
Shepherd 
Songster 
Sorcerer 

Sultan 

Tiger 

Traitor 

Tutor 

Viscount 

Votary 

Widower 


Female. 

princess 

prioress 

prophetess 

protectress 

shepherdess 

songstress 

sorceress 
(sultana,  or  sul* 
(     taness 

tigress 

traitress 

tutoress 

viscountess 

votaress 

widow 


distinguishing  word;  as. 

A  hen  sparrow. 
A  she  goat. 
A  maid  servant. 
A  female  child. 
Female  descendants. 


71.  OBSERVATIONS  ON  GENDER. 

1.  Some   nouns  are  either  masculine  or  feminine;  such  as 
parent,  child,  cousin,  infant,  servant,  neighbor.     Such  are  some- 
times said  to  be  of  the  common  gender. 

2.  Some  nouns  naturally  neuter  are  converted  by  a  figure  of 
speech  into  the  masculine  or  feminine  -,  as  when  we  say  of  the  sun, 
He  is  setting-,  of  the  moon,  She  is  eclipsed  5  and  of  a  ship,  She  sails. 

3.  In  speaking  of  animals  whose  sex  is  not  known  to  us,  or 
not  regarded,  we  assign  the  masculine  gender  to  those  distinguished 
for  boldness,  fidelity,  generosity,  size,  strength,  etc.,  as  the  dog, 
the  horse,  the  elephant.     Thus  we  say,  u  The  dog  is  remarkably 
various  in  his  species."     On  the  other  hand,  we  assign  the  femi- 
nine gender  to  animals  characterized  by  weakness  and  timidity  j 
as,  the  hare,  the  cat,  etc.,  thus,  "  The  cat,  as  she  beholds  th« 
light,  draws  the  ball  of  her  eye  small  and  long." 

• 


VSR  :-! 


1:2  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  8 

4.  In  speaking  of  animals,  particularly  those  of  inferior  size, 
we  frequently  consider  them  devoid  of  sex.     Thus,  of  an  infant, 
we  say,  "  It  is  a  lovely  creature-,"  of  a  cat,  "It  is  cruel  to  itt 
enemy." 

5.  When  the  male  and  the  female  are  expressed  by  distinct 
terms,  as,  shepherd,  shepherdess,  the  masculine  term  has  sometimes 
also  a  general  meaning,  expressing  both  male  and  female ;  and  is 
always  to  be  used  when  the  office,  occupation,  or  profession ;  and 
not  the  sex  of  the  individual,  is  chiefly  to  be  expressed.     The 
feminine  term  is  used  only  when  the  discrimination  of  sex  is 
indispensably  necessary.     Thus,  when  it  is  said  "the  Poets  of 
this  country  are  distinguished  for  correctness  of  taste,"  the  term 

1  Poet  "  clearly  includes  both  male  and  female  writers  of  poetry 

§  8.     NUMBER. 

72.  NUMBER  is  that  property  of  a  noun  by  which 
it  expresses  one,  or  more  than  one.     Nouns  have 
two  numbers,  the  Singular  and  the  Plural.     The 
Singular  denotes  one ;  the  Plural,  more  than  one. 

GENERAL  RULE. 

73.  The  plural  is  commonly  formed  by  adding 
tf  to  the  singular ;  as,  book,  books. 

SPECIAL  RULES. 

1.  Nouns  in  s,  sh,  ch  soft,  z,  x,  or  o,  form  the  plural 
by  adding  es  ;  as,  Miss,  Misses  ;  brush,  brushes;  match, 
matches  ;  fox,  foxes  ;  hero,  heroes. 

Exc.  Nouns  in  eo,  to  and  yo,  and  in  ch  sounding  &,  have  *  only} 
as,  cameo,  cameos-,  monarch,  monarchs.  Also  canto  has  cantos 5 
but  other  nouns  in  o  after  a  consonant  now  commonly  add  es;  as, 
grotto,  grottoes-,  tyro,  tyroes. 

2.  Nouns  in  y  after  a  consonant,  change  y  into  ies  in 
the  plural ;  as,  lady,  ladies. 


$  9.  ETYMOLOGY.  13 

Nouns  in  y  after  a  vowel,  follow  the  general  rule; 
as,  day,  days.  (35.  Exc.  2.) 

3.  Nouns  in  /  or  fe,  change  /  or  fe  into  ves  in  the 
plural;  as,  loaf,  loaves;  life,  lives. 

Exc.  Dwarf,  scarf,  wharf;  brief,  chief,  grief-,  kerchief,  hand- 
kerchief, mischief;  gulf,  turf,  surf;  fife,  strife;  proof,  hoof,  roof, 
reproof,  follow  the  general  rule.  Also  nouns  inff  have  their 
plural  in  */  as,  muff,  muffs;  except  staff :,  which  has  sometimes 
ttaves;  so  wharf,  wharves. 

EXERCISES  ON  NUMBER. 

Give  the  plural,  and  the  rule  for  forming  it,  of — Fox, 
book,  leaf,  candle,  hat,  loaf,  wish,  fish,  sex,  box,  coach, 
inch,  sky,  bounty,  army,  duty,  knife,  echo,  loss,  cargo, 
wife,  story,  church,  table,  glass,  study,  calf,  branch, 
street,  potato,  peach,  sheaf,  booby,  rock,  stone,  house, 
glory,  hope,  flower,  city,  difficulty,  distress,  wolf. 

Day,  bay,  relay,  chimney,  journey,  valley,  needle, 
enemy,  army,  vale,  ant,  voile}7,  hill,  sea,  key,  toy, 
monarch,  tyro,  grotto,  nuncio,  punctilio,  embryo,  gulf 
handkerchief,  hoof,  staff,  muff,  cliff,  whiff,'  cuff,  ruff. 

Of  what  number  is — Book,  trees,  plant,  shrub,  globes, 
hills,  river,  scenes,  stars,  planets,  toys,  home,  fancy, 
mosses,  glass,  state,  foxes,  house,  prints,  spoon,  bears, 
lilies,  roses,  churches,  glove,  silk,  skies,  berries,  peach? 

§  9.  NOUNS  IRREGULAR  IN  THE  PLURAL. 

74.  Some  nouns  are  irregular  in  the  formation  of  their  plural;  v 

Singular.  Plural.  Singular.  Plural, 

Man  men  Tooth  teeth 

Woman  women  Goose  geese 

Child  children  Mouse  mice 

Foot  feet  Louse  lice 

Ox  oxen 


14 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


*75.  Some  nouns  have  both  a  regular  and  irregular 
form  of  the  plural,  but  with  different  significations ;  as, 

Singular.  Plural. 

Brother  (one  of  the  same  family)  orothers 

Brother  (one  of  the  same  society)  brethren 

Sow  (an  individual  animal)  sows 

Sow  or  swine  (the  species)  swine 

Die  (a  small  cube  for  gaming)  dice 

Die  (a  stamp  for  coining)  dies 

Index  (a  table  of  reference)  indexes 

Index  (a  character  in  algebra)  indices 

Penny  (a  coin)  pennies 

Penny  (a  sum  or  value)  pence 

76.  Some  compounds  pluralize  the  first  word ;  as, 

Singular.  Plural.  Singular.  Plural. 

Aid-de-camp       aids-de-camp       Cousin-german  cousins-germau 
Court-martial     courts-martial     Father-in-law     fathers-in-law 

77.  Words  from  foreign  languages  sometimes  retain  their  ori- 
ginal plural.  As  a  general  rule,  nouns  in  um  or  on  have  a  in  the 
plural ;  but  those  in  is  in  the  singular,  change  it  into  es  in  the* 
plural.  The  following  are  the  most  common,  of  which  some  also 
have  a  regular  English  plural-,  these  are  marked  R: 


Singular. 

Plural. 

Singular.            Plural. 

Animalculum 

animalcula  R 

Genus                  genera 

Antithesis 

antitheses 

Genius  (a  spirit)genii 

Apex 

apices 

Hypothesis         hypotheses 

Appendix 

appendices  R 

Ignis  fatuus        ignes  fatui 

Arcanum 

arcana 

Lamina                laminae 

Automaton 

automata  R 

Magus                 magi 

Axis 

axes 

Memorandum     memoranda 

Basis 

bases 

Metamorphosis  metamorphose* 

Cherub 

cherubim  R 

Monsieur             messieurs 

Crisis 

crises 

Phenomenon       phenomena 

Criterion 

criteria 

Radius                 radii 

Datum 

data 

Stamen                stamina  R 

Desideratum 

desiderata 

Seraph                 seraphim  R 

Effluvium 

effluvia 

Stimulus              stimuli 

Ellipsis 

ellipses 

Stratum               strata 

Emphasis 

emphases 

Vortex                 vortices 

Encomium 

encomia  R 

Virtuoso              virtuosi 

Erratum 

errata 

Mr  (master)        Messrs  (me* 

Focus 

foci 

sieurs) 

§  10.  ETYMOLOGY.  15 

78.     §  10.  OBSERVATIONS  ON  NUMBER. 

1.  Proper  names  have  the  plural,  only  when  they  refer  to  a 
race  or  family,    as,  the  Stuarts,  the  Campbells;   or   to  several 
persons  of  the  same  name-,  as,  the  twelve  Casars,  the  two  Mr. 
Bdls ,  the  two  Miss  Browns.     But  without  the  numeral,  or  in 
addressing  letters  in  which  both  or  all  are  equally  concerned,  and 
also   when  the  names   are  different,  we  pluralize  the  title-,  as 
Misses  Brown,  Messrs.  Webster  and  Skinner.   (§  60,  Rem.  1,  2.) 

2.  Names  of  metals,  virtues,  vices,  and  things  that  are  weighed 
or  measured,  are  for  the  most  part  confined  to  the  singular  num. 
her-,  as,  gold,  meekness,  temperance,  bread,  beer,  beef,  etc.    Except 
when  different  sorts  are  meant;  as  wines,  teas,  etc. 

3.  Some   nouns  are  used  in  the  plural  only-,  such  as  annals 
antipodes,  literati,  credenda,  minutics,  banditti,  data;  and  things 
consisting  of  two  parts,  as  bellows,  scissors,  pliers,  tongs,  lungs% 
etc. ;  or  of  more  than  two,  as  ashes,  embers,  entrails,  clothes,etc. 

NOTE.  For  the  singular  of  literati,  the  expression  "one  oftht 
literati"  is  used-,  and  bandit  is  used  as  the  singular  of  banditti. 

4.  Some  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers;  as  hose,  deer,  shcept 
swine,  trout,  salmon,  tench;   apparatus,   hiatus,  series,   species, 
brace,  dozen,  head,  couple,  score,  pair,  hundred,  thousand,  etc. 

NOTE.  Brace,  dozen,  etc.,  have  sometimes  a  plural  form;  as, 
He  bought  partridges  in  braces,  and  books  in  scores  and  dozens. 
Cannon,  shot,  and  sail,  are  used  in  a  plural  sense.  Foot,  horse% 
infantry,  and  sometimes  cavalry,  meaning  bodies  of  foot,  etc.,  are 
%>nstrued  with  a  plural  verb.  The  singular  of  sheep,  deer,  etc., 
is  distinguished  by  the  article  a;  as,  a  sheep,  a  deer. 

5.  Some  words  are  plural  in  form,  but  in  construction  either 
singular  or  plural ;  such  as  amends,  means,  riches,  pains;  and  the 
names  of  certain  sciences,  as  mathematics,  metaphysics,  ethics 
politics,  optics,  etc. 

NOTE.  Means,  when  it  points  out  the  instrumentality  of  one 
agent,  is  construed  as  singular-,  of  more  than  one,  as  plural 
Mean,  in  the  singular  form,  is  commonly  used  to  signify  a  mid- 
die  between  two  extremes.  News  is  now  generally  construed  in 
the  singular  number,  dims  (celmesse,  Ang.  Sax.),  riches  (richesse, 
Fr.)  are  really  singular,  though  now  used  commonly  in  a  plural 
sense.  Thanks  is  considered  a  plural  noun,  though  used  to  de- 
note one  expression  of  gratitude 


16  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  11 

EXERCISES    ON   IRREGULAK  NOUNS   AND   OBSERVATIONS,  etc. 

Give  the  plural  of — Man,  foot,  penny,  mouse,  ox, 
child,  father-in-law,  son-in-law,  brother;  erratum,  ra- 
dius, lamina,  automaton,  phenomenon,  stratum,  axis, 
ellipsis,  stamen,  index,  cherub,  seraph. 

Of  what  number  is  —  Dice,  arcana,  fishermen,  geese, 
dormice,  alms,  riches,  thanks,  snuffers,  tongs,  teeth, 
woman,  child,  court-martial,  apparatus,  minutiae,  genii, 
geniuses,  indices,  indexes,  mathematics,  Matthew,  John, 
James? 

§  11.     CASES  OF  NOUNS. 

79.  CASE  is  the  state  or  condition  of  a  noun  with 
respect  to  the  other  words  in  a  sentence.  App.  VI. 

80.  Nouns  have  three  cases;  viz.,the  Nominative, 
Possessive,  and  Objective. 

81.  The  Nominative  case  commonly  expresses  that  of  which 
something  is  said  or  declared-,  as,  the  sun  shines.     See  (§  80.) 

82.  The  Possessive  denotes  possession;  as,  the  lady's  fan.      Also 
origin  or  fitness;  as,  the  sun's  rays,  men's  shoes. 

83.  The  Objective  denotes  the  object  of  some  action  or  relation; 
as,  James  assists  Thomas;  they  live  in  London. 

84.  The  nominative  and  objective  are  alike.  ^ 

85.  The  possessive  singular  is  formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe 
(  '  )  and  s  to  the  nominative-,  as,  John's. 

86.  When  the  plural  ends  in  *,  the  possessive  is  formed  by 
adding  an  apostrophe  only. 

87.  NOUNS    ARE    THUS    DECLINED! 

Singular.       Plural.  Singular,       Plural. 

Nom.       Lady          Ladies  John 

Poss.        Lady's       Ladies'  John's 

Obj.         Lady          Ladies  John 

Proper  names  generally  want  the  plural.     See  78  1 


§11  ETYMOLOGY.  17 

88.  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  POSSESSIVE. 

1.  The  apostrophe  and  s  ('5)  are  an  abbreviation  for  is  or  es,  the 
termination  of  the  old  English  genitive ;  thus,  "  the  king's  crown 
was  anciently  written,  uthe  kingis  crown." 

2.  When  the  nominative  singular  ends  in  ss,  or  in  letters  of 
similar  sound,  the  s  after  the  apostrophe  is  sometimes  omitted,  in 
order  to  avoid  too  close  a  succession  of  hissing  sounds;  as,  "  for 
goodness'  sake-,"    u  for  conscience' sake."     This,  however,  is  sel- 
dom done,  unless  the  word  following  the  possessive  begins  with 
*:  thus, we  do  not  say,   "the  prince1  feather;"  but,  "the  prince's 
feather."     (See  An.  Gr.  175). 

3.  The  relation  expressed  by  the  possessive  case,  is  in  general 
the  same  with  that  expressed  by  the  word  of;   thus,   u  the  rage 
of  the  tyrant,"  "the  death  of  the  prince,"  are  equivalent  to  uth« 
tyrant's  rage,"   "  the  prince's  death."     Hence  when  the  use  oi 
the  possessive  would  appear  stiff,  it  is  better  to  use  the  preposition 
of,  or  some  equivalent  expression  instead  of  it-,  as  "  the  satellites 
of  Jupiter,"  "  the  length  of  the  day,"  "  the  garden  wall,"  for 
"  Jupiter's  satellites,"  "  the  day's  length,"  "  the  garden's  wall." 
Sometimes,  however,  the  idea  expressed  by  the  preposition  of, 
with  the  objective,  is  different  from  that  expressed  by  the  posses- 
sive-, thus,  "  a  picture  of  the  king,"  and  "  the  king's  picture," 
express  different  ideas;  the  first  means  u  a.  portrait  of  the  king," 
the  last,  "  a  picture  belonging  to  the  king." 

PARSING  THE  NOUN. 

89.  A  noun  is  parsed  etymologically  (53)  by  stating  its  acci- 
dents, or  grammatical  properties ;  thus,  Father,  a  noun,  masctp 
line,  in  the  nominative  singular.     App.  IV. 

In  this  way  parse  all  the  nouns  in  the  following  exercise. 

EXERCISES    ON    GENDER,    NUMBER    AND    CASE.* 

Father,  brothers,  mother's,  boys,  book,  loaf,  arms, 
wife,  hats,  sisters',  bride's,  bottles,  brush,  goose,  eagles' 
wings,  echo,  ox's  horn,  mouse,  kings,  queens,  bread 
child's  toy,  grass,  tooth,  tongs,  candle,  chair,  Jane's 
boots,  Robert's  shoe,  horse,  bridle. 

*  Note.    In  the  use  of  these  exercises,  it  will  save  much  time,  which  is  verj 


IS  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §    12. 

§  12.     THE  ARTICLE. 

90.  An  ARTICLE  is  a  word  put  before  a  noun,  to 
show  the  manner  in  which  it  is  used.  App.  VII. 

91.  There  are  two  articles;  a  or  an,  and  the. 

92.  A  or  an  is  called  the  Indefinite  Article,  be- 
cause it  shews  that  the  noun  is  not  limited  to  a 
particular   person  or   thing;   as,  a  king;  that  is, 
any  king. 

93.  The  is  'called  the  Definite  Article,  because 
it  shews  that  the  noun  is  limited  to  a  particular 
person  or  thing ;  as,  the  king ;  i.  e.  some  particular 
king. 

94.  A  noun  without   an  article,  is  taken  in  its 
widest  sense  ;  as,  Man  is  mortal,  i.  e.  All  mankind: 
Or,  in  an  indefinite  sense ;  as,  There  are  men  de- 
stitute of  all  shame,  i.  e.  some  men  (§  81). 

A  noun  with  the  before  it,  sometimes  denotes  the  species;  as, 
the  oak,  the  lion. 

95.  A  is  used  before  a  consonant ;  as,  a  look. 

96.  An  is  used  before  a  vowel,  or  silent  h  ;  as,  an 
age,  an  hour.     But 

97.  ^,and  not  an, is  used  before  u  long,  and  the  diphthong  ew, 
because  these  letters  have,  combined  with  their  sound,  the  power 
of  initial  y;  thus,    a  unit,  a  use,  a  eulogy.     On  the  other  hand, 
an  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  h  sounded,  when  the 
accent  is  on  the  second  syllable;  as,  an  heroic  action,  an  historical 
account',  because  the  h  in  such  words  is  but  slightly  sounded. 

important  in  a  large  school,  if  the  pupil  be  taught  to  express  all  that  is  necessary 
in  parsing  these  or  other  words,  in  as  few  words  as  possible,  and  always  in  the 
tame  order,  thus:  Father,  a  noun,  masculine,  in  the  nominative  singular. 
Mother's,  a  noun,  feminine,  in  the  possessive  singular.  It  will  also  be  a  profitable 
txercise  for  him  to  assign  a  reason  for  every  part  of  his  description,  thus :  lather, 
&  noun,  because  the  name  of  an  object;  masculine,  because  it  denotes  the  malt 
sex;  singular,  because  it  denotes  but  one;  plural,  fathers— Rule,  "The  plural  is 
eommonly  formed  by  adding  $  to  the  singular  n 


§  13.  ETYMOLOGY.  J9 

PARSING,  An  article  is  parsed  by  stating  whether  definite  or 
indefinite,  and  to  what  noun  it  belongs. 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  ARTICLES. 

Prefix  the  indefinite  article  to  the  words,  river,  hope? 
army,  hermit,  infant,  uncle,  humor,  usurper,  hostler, 
wish,  youth,  umbrage,  oyster,  herb,  thought,  honor, 
elephant,  husband. 

Correct  what  follows,  and  give  a  reason  for  the  change, 
A  inkstand,  an  handful,  a  article,  a  humble  man,  an 
ewe,  a  anchor,  an  useful  book,  an  history,  an  humorous 
tale,  an  hedge,  an  union. 

§  13.     THE  ADJECTIVE. 

98.  An  ADJECTIVE  is  a  word  used  to  qualify  a 
noun  or  substantive ;  as,  a  good  boy ;  a  square  box ; 
ten  dollars.     App.  VTIL 

99.  NOTE.  A  noun  is  qualified  by  an  adjective  when  the  object 
named  is  thereby  described ,  limited  or  distinguished  from  other 
things  of  the  same  name. 

100.  An  adjective  in  the  predicate  may  qualify  a  pronoun,  an 
infinitive  mood,  or  substantive  clause;  as,  He  is  poor.    To  play  is 
pleasant.     That  the  rich  are  happy,  is  not  always  ttue. 

101.  Nouns  become  adjectives  when  they  are  used  to  express 
the  quality  of  other  nouns  -,  as,  gold  ring,  silver  cup,  sea  water. 

102.  On  the  contrary,  adjectives  are  often  used  as  nouns;    as, 
14  God  rewards  the  good,  and  punishes  the  bad."     "  The  virtuous 
are  the  most  happy."     Adjectives  thus  used  are  usually  preceded 
by  the  definite  article ;  and  when  appbed  to  persons,  are  considered 
plural.     (§  40,  Rule  vn.) 

103.  Adjectives  which  express  number,   are  called  Numeral 
adjectives.     They  are  of  two  kinds,  Cardinal  and  Ordinal. .  The 
Cardinal  answer  the   question  u  how  many?"  and  are  one,   /wo, 
three,  four,  five,  six,  etc.      The  ordinal  answer  the  question, 
11  which  of  the  number!"     They  are  first,  second,  third,  fourth. 
etc.     In  compound  numbers,  the  last  only  has  the  cardinal  form? 
esN  thirty-second/  three  hundred  and  forty-third. 


20  ENtJLISH    GRAMMAR.  §    13. 

§  14.  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

104.  ADJECTIVES  have  three  degrees  of  com- 
parison ;  namely,  the  Positive,  Comparative,  and  ' 
Superlative.     App.  IX. 

105.  The  Positive  expresses  the  quality  simply;  the  Compara- 
tive asserts  it  in  a  higher  or  lower  degree  in  one  object  than  in 
another:  and  the  Superlative,  in  the  highest  or  lowest  degree 
compared  with  several-,  thus.  Gold  is  heavier  than  silver 5  it  is 
the  most  precious  of  the  metals. 

106.  In  adjectives  of  one  syllable,  the  Compara- 
tive is  formed  by  adding  -er  to  the  Positive ;  and 
the  Superlative,  by  adding  -est ;  as,  sweet,  sweeter* 
sweetest. 

107.  Adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable  are 
compared  by  prefixing  more  and  most  to  the  posi- 
tive ;  as,  numerous,  more  numerous,  most  numerous. 

108.  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Dissyllables  in  le  after  a  mute,  are  generally  compared  by 
cr  and  est:  as,  able,  abler ,  ablest  (37,  R.  vn).     Dissyllables  in  y 
change  y  into  i  before  -er  and  -est;  as,  happy,  happier,  happiest. 
But  y  with  a  vowel  before  it,  is  not  changed  5  as,  gay,  gaycr^ 
gayest  (35.  Exc.  2). 

2.  Some  adjectives  form  the  superlative  by  adding  most  to  the 
end  of  the  word  5  as,  upper,  uppermost.     So,  undermost,  foremost^ 
hindmost,  utmost. 

3.  When  the  positive  ends  in  a  simple  consonant,  preceded  by 
a  single  vowel,  the  consonant  is  doubled  before  er  and  est;  as,  hoty 
letter,  hottest  (31.  Rule  in). 

4.  Some  adjectives  do  not  admit  of  comparison,  viz: 

1.  Such  as  denote  number;  as,  one,  two;  third,  fourth. 

2. -figure  or  shape;  as,  circular,  square. 

3. posture  or  position;  as,  perpendicular. 

4.  Those  of  an  absolute  or  superlative  signification',  as,  trwc 
perfect,  universal,  chief,  extreme,  etc      (§  72.  Obs  ) 


§  13.  ETYMOLOGY.  21 

REMARK. — Of  these  last,  however,  comparative  and  superlative 
forms  are  sometimes  used  by  the  best  writers  •  as,  "  The  extremest 
of  evils."— Bacon.  "  The  chief est  of  the  herdsmen." — Bible. 

5.  Such  adjectives  as  superior,  inferior,  exterior,  interior,  etc., 
though  they  involve  the  idea  of  comparison,  are  not  to  be  con» 
sidered  as  in  the  comparative  degree,  any  more  than  such  adjec- 
tives as  preferable,  previous,  etc.     They  neither  have  the  form 
»f  the  comparative,  nor  are  they  ever  construed  with  than  aftei 
tnem,  as  comparatives  in  English  commonly  are.     (See  Syntax 
$  71,  Rule  xxii). 

6.  The  superlative   degree  implying   comparison,  is  usually 
preceded  by  the  definite  article.     When  preceded  by  the  indefinite 
article,  it  does  not  imply  comparison,  but  eminence;  as,  "  He  is  a 
most  distinguished  man."     The  same  thing  nearly  is  expressed  by 
prefixing  the  adverb  very,  exceedingly  and  the  like   which  is  some- 
times called  the  superlative  of  eminence. 

7.  Without  implying  comparison,  the  signification  of  the  positive 
is  sometimes  lessened  by  the  termination  ish;  as,  white,  whitish, 
black,  blackish.     These  may  properly  be  called  diminutive  adjec- 
tives.    The  adverb  rather,  expresses  a  small  degree  of  the  quality} 
as,  rather  little. 

109.  ADJECTIVES  COMPARED  IRREGULARI.V 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative 

Good  better  best 

Bad,  evil  or  ill  worse  worst 

Little  less  least 

Much  or  many  more  most 

Late  later  latest  or  last 

Near  nearer  nearest  or  next 

Far  farther  farthest 

Fore  former  foremost  or  first 

Old  older  or  elder       oldest  or  eldest 

OBS.  Much  is  applied  to  things  weighed  or  measured;  many,  to 
those  that  are  numbered.  Elder  and  eldest  are  applied  to  persgn* 
only ;  older  and  oldest,  to  either  persons  or  things. 


22  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  $  15 

EXERCISES. 

Of  what  degree  of  comparison  is  —  Sweet,  kinder, 
warmest,  prompt,  firmest,  bright,  high,  cold,  nobler, 
broader,  bravest,  more  pleasant,  most  desirable,  softer  ? 

Compare — Great,  small,  rough,  smooth,  happy,  noble, 
gay,  good,  little,  much,  worthless,  ambitious,  old,  young. 

110.  PARSING. — An  adjective  is  parsed  by  stating  its  degree 
comparing  it  (if  compared),  and  the  noun  which  it  qualifies;  thus, 
A  good  man.     Good  is  an  adjective,  positive  degree,  compared  ir- 
regularly, good,  better,  best,  and  qualifies  man. 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  ARTICLE,  NOUN,  AND  ADJECTIVE. 

Distinguish  and  parse  as  directed  all  the  words  in  tins  exercise  : 

A  good  man;  a  kind  heart;  a  clear  sky;  the  bene- 
volent lady ;  the  highest  hill ;  a  skilful  artist ;  an  older 
companion ;  man's  chief  concern ;  a  lady's  lapdog ;  most 
splendid  talents;  the  liveliest  disposition;  a  pleasant 
temper ;  the  raging  billows ;  temples  magnificent ;  silent 
shades ;  excellent  weather ;  a  loftier  tower. 

§  15.     PRONOUNS. 

111.  A  PRONOUN  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a 
noun ;  as,  John  is  a  good  boy ;  he  is  diligent  in  his 
studies.     App.  X. 

112.  Pronouns  may  oe  divided  into  four  classes ; 
Personal,  Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Adjective. 

113.  The  personal  pronouns  are,  /,  thou,  he,  she, 
it.    They  are  thus  declined  • 


SINGULAR.                      . 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

Poss. 

Obj. 

Nom. 

Poss. 

OK 

'  t 

M.  or 

F. 

I 

mine 

me 

We 

ours 

us 

t, 

M.  or 

F. 

Thou 

thine 

thee 

You,  (ye)  yours 

you 

3. 

Masc. 

He 

his 

him 

They 

theirs 

them 

3. 

Fern. 

She 

hers 

her 

They 

theirs 

them 

a. 

Neut. 

It 

its 

it 

They 

theirs 

them 

§   15  ETYMOLOGY.  23 

114.     OBSERVATIONS  ON  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

1.  /is  of  the  first  person,  and  denotes  the  speaker. 
Thou  is  of  the  second,  and  denotes  the  person  spoken  to. 
He,  she,  and  it,  are  of  the  third  person,  and  denote  the 
person  or  thing  spoken  of.     So  also  of  their  plurals, 
we,  you  (ye),  they. 

2.  Myself,  thyself,  himself,  herself,  itself,  with  their 
plurals  ourselves,  yourselves,  themselves,  may  be  called 
Compound  personal  pronouns.     They  are  used  in  the 
nominative  and  the  objective  case.     In  the  nominative 
they  are  emphatic,  and  are  added  to  their  respective 
personal  pronouns,  or  are  used  instead  of  them;  as, 
"  1  myself  did  it;"  "  himself  shall  come."     In  the  ob- 
jective, they  are  rejlexive,  showing  that  the  agent  is 
also  the  object  of  his  own  act;  as,  "Judas  went  and 
hanged  himself.'9 

3.  In  proclamations,  charters,  editorial    articles,  and  the  like, 
we  is  frequently  applied  to  one  person. 

4.  In  addressing  persons,   you  is  commonly. put  both  for  the 
singular  and  the  plural,  and  has  always  a  plural  verb.     Thou  is 
used  only  in  addresses  to  the  Deity,  or  any  important  object  in 
nature-,  or  to  mark  special  emphasis,  or,  in  the  language  of  con- 
tempt.    The  plural  form  ye  is  now  but  seldom  used.    (App.  XI.) 

5.  The  pronoun  it,  besides  its  use  as  the  neuter  pronoun  of  the 
third  person,  is  also  used  indefinitely  with  the  verb  to  be  in  the 
third  person  singular,  for  all  genders,  numbers,  and  persons;  as, 
It  is  I,  it  is  we,  it  is  you,  it  is  they;  It  was  she,  etc. 

6.  Hers,  its,  ours,  yours,  theirs,  should  never  be  written  Aer'*, 
ftV,  owr's.  your's,  theirs. 

PARSING  PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 
K.5.  The  personal  pronouns  may  be  parsed  briefly  thus:  /,  the 
first  personal  pronoun,  masculine  (or  feminine),  in  the  nominative 
singular.     His,  the  third  personal  pronoun,  masculine,  in  the  pos- 
sessive singular. 


24  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §   16 

EXERCISES  ON  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

Parse  the  following  as  directed  above: — I,  thou.  we, 
me,  us,  thine,  he,  him,  she,  hers,  they,  thee,  them,  its, 
theirs,  you,  her,  ours,  yours,  mine,  his,  I,  me,  them,  us. 

§  16.  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

1 16.  A  RELATIVE  Pronoun  is  a  word  that  relates 
to,  and  connects  its  clause  with,  a  noun  or  pronoun 
before  it,  called  the  antecedent ;  as,  "  The  master 
who  taught  us.*' 

117.  The  relative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  that^ 
and  what  (App.  XII).  They  are  alike  in  both  num- 
bers.    That  and  what  are  indeclinable,  and  used 
only  in  the  nominative  and   objective.     JVho  and 
which  are  thus  declined. 

Sing,  and  Plur.  Sing,  and  Plur. 

Norn.            Who,  Which. 

Poss.             Whose,  Whose. 

Obj.              Whom,  Which. 

118.  Who  is  applied  to  persons  ;  as,  "The  boy 
who  reads.'' 

OBS.  Also  to  inferior  animals,  and  things  without  life,  when 
they  are  represented  as  speaking  and  acting  like  rational  beings. 

119.  Which  is   applied  to  inferior  animals  and 
things  without  life  ;  as,  "  The  dog  which  barks ;" 
"  The  book  which  was  lost." 

NOTE.  Which  is  applied  also  to  collective  nouns  expressing  many 
persons  as  one  whole ;  as,  "  The  court  of  Spain  which  ;"  "  the  com- 
pany which."  And  likewise  after  the  name  of  a  person  used 
merely  as  a  word  ;  as,  "  The  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  which  was 
but  another  name  for  prudence  and  economy." 

Wliich  was  formerly  applied  to  persons  as  well  as  thinga.  and  if 
so  used  in  the  common  version  of  the  Scriptures. 


§   16.  ETYMOLOGY.  25 

120.  That  is  often  used  as  a  relative,  to  prevent 
the  too  frequent  repetition  of  who  or  which.     It  is 
applied  both  to  persons  and  things.     §  58,  Rem.  3. 

121.  What  is  applied  to  things  only,  and  is  never 
used  but  when  the  antecedent  is  omitted ;  as,  "  This 
is  what  I  wanted,"=the  thing  which  I  wanted.  XIII 

122.       OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  RELATIVE. 

1.  Which  has  for  its  possessive  whose;   as,  A  religion  whost 
origin  is  divine.     Instead  of  whose,  however,  the  objective  with 
of  before  it,  is  more  commonly  used ;  as,  A  religion  the  origin  oj 
which  is  divine. 

2.  What  and  which  are  sometimes  used  as  adjectives-,  that  is, 
they  agree  with  a  substantive  following  them-,  as,  "I  know  not 
by  what  fatality  the  adversaries  of  the  measure  are  impelled-,'1 
Which  things  are  an  allegory."     In  this  sense,  which  applies  eithei 
to  persons  or  things,  and  in  meaning  is  equivalent  to  this  or  these. 

3.  Whoever,  whosoever,  whatever  and  whatsoever  are  also  used  as 
compound  relatives,  and  are  equivalent  to  the  relative  and  a  gene- 
ral or  indefinite  antecedent-,  as,  "Whosoever  committeth  sin  is 
the  servant  of  sin-,*'  that  is  u  any  one"  or  "  every  one  who  com- 
mitteth  sin,  etc.  "  "  Whatsoever  things  are  of  good  report-,"  i.  e. 
u  Ml  things  (without  exception)  which  are  of  good  report"  (§  59, 
Rule  in;  §  63,  8). 

4.  Who,  and  also  which,  and  what  without  a  substantive  fol- 
lowing them,  in  responsive  sentences,  or  in  sentences  similarly 
constructed,  are  properly  neither  relatives  nor  adjectives,  but  a 
kind  of  indefinite  pronouns.  Thus,  when  to  the  question  ;'  Who 
is  the  author  of  that  poem?"  it  is  replied,  "  I  do  not  know  who  is 
its  author,"  the  word  "  who"  is  evidently  not  a  relative-,  for  if  it 
were,  then,  with  the  antecedent  supplied,  the  sentence  would  be 
u  I  do  not  know  the  person  who  is  its  author."  These  two 
sentences,  however,  are  clearly  not  equivalent  -,  the  former  means 
11  I  do  rjot  know  by  what  person  it  was  written-,"  the  latter,  "  I 
have  nc  knowledge  of  him,  I  am  not  acquainted  with  him."  Th*» 
3 


'2G  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  17 

first  is  a  direct  answer  to  the  question,  the  last  is  no  answer  a« 
all,  but  would  be  considered  as  an  evasion. 

123.  PARSING.— The  relative  is  parsed  by  stating  its  gender, 
number,  and  case,  thus-,  "  The  boy  who  reads,"—  Who,  a  relative 
pronoun,  masculine,  in  the  nominative  singular,  and  refers  to  boy, 
as  its  antecedent. 

NOTE. — The  gender  and  number  of  the  relative,  are  always  the 
same  as  those  of  the  antecedent. 

§  17.  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

124.  In  asking  questions,  who,  which,  and  what 
are  called  INTERROGATIVE  pronouns. 

125.  As  interrogatives,  who  is  applied  to  persons 
only ;  which  and  what ,  either  to  persons  or  things- 
What  admits  of  no  variation. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

126.  Obs.  1.  In  the  use  of  the  interrogatives  as  applied  to  per- 
sons, the  following  distinction  is  to  be  observed  5  namely,    Who 
is  used  when  we  inquire  after  a  person  or  persons  unknown  -,  as, 
Who  did  it?     Which  is  used  when  wre  inquire  after  one  or  more 
of  a  number  present,  or  already  spoken  of-,  as,    Which  of  thein 
did  it?     Which  of  these  men  is  the  president?     What  is  used 
when  the  character,  or  a  description  of  a  person  is  inquired  after, 
and  not  the  name  or  the  individual  merely,  as,  What  is  he? 

127.  Obs.  2.  When  a  denning  term  is  added,  either  what  or 
which  may  be  used-,  as,  What  man,  or  which  man  among  you? 

128.  Obs.  3.    Whether  (now  used  as  a  conjunction  only)  wa> 
formerly  used  as  an  interrogative  pronoun,  equivalent  to  which 
of  the  two?  as,    u Whether  is  greater,  the  gold,  or  the  temple  ?" 
Its  place  is  now  supplied  by  which. 

129.  Obs.  4.  In  answers  to  questions  made  by  these  interroga- 
tives,  the  same  words  are  used  as  responsive s  ;  as,    Who  did  it  1 
I  know  not  who  did  it,     Which  of  them  did  it?     I  know  not  which 
of  them  did  it  (See  §  16,  Obs.  4). 


§   18  ETYMOLOGY.  27 

*     §  18.     ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

130.  ADJECTIVE    PRONOUNS    are    words    used 
sometimes  like  adjectives  to  qualify  a  noun,  and 
sometimes  like  pronouns  to  stand  instead  of  nouns. 

131.  Adjective  pronouns  are  divided  into  four 
classes ;  namely,  Possessive,  Dijtoributive,  Demon- 
strative, and  Indefinite. 

132.  The  Possessive  pronouns  are  such  as  de- 
note possession.    They  are  My,  thy,  his,  lier,  our, 
your,  their,  its  own. 

133.  OBS.  1.  The  possessive  pronoun  is  in  fact  only  another  form 
of  the  possessive  case  of  the  personal  pronoun,  having  the  same 
meaning  but  a  different  construction.     The  possessive  pronoun, 
like  the  adjective,  is  always  followed  by  a  substantive  •,  as,  This  is 
my  book.     The  possessive  case  of  the  personal  pronoun  is  never 
followed  by  a  substantive,  but  refers  to  one  previously  expressed ; 
as,  this  book  is  mine.     The  possessive  case  of  the  substantive  is 
used  both  ways  5  as  this  book  is  John's;  or,  this  is  John's  book. 
(App.  xiv.) 

134.  OBS.  2.  His  and  her  when  followed  by  a  substantive  are 
possessive  pronouns  5  not  followed  by  a  substantive,  his  is  the 
possessive  case  of  he;  and  her  is  the  objective  case  of  she. 

135.  OBS.  3.  Mine  and  thine  were  formerly  used,  before  a  vowel 
or  the  letter  A,  as  possessives  for  my  and  thy,-  as,   "Blot  out  all 
mine  iniquities-,"  "Commune  with  thine  heart." 

136.  OBS.  4.    Own  is  not  used  as  a  possessive  pronoun  by  itself, 
but  is  added  to  the  other  possessive  pronouns,  and  to  the  possessive 
case  of  nouns,  to  render  them  emphatic ;  as,  My  own  book ;  The 
boy's  own  book.     The  possessive  pronoun  with  own  following  it, 
may  stand  alone,  having  its  substantive  understood;  as,  It  is  my 
own. 

137.  The  distributive  pronouns  represent  objects 
as  taken  separately.  They  are  Each,  every,  eitherf 
neither. 


28  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §   18 

138.  OBS.  1.  Each  denotes  two  things  taken  separately;  or  every 
one  of  any  number  taken  singly.    Every  denotes  more  than  two 
things  taken  individually,  and  comprehends  them  all   Either  means 
one  of  two,  but  not  both.    Neither  means  not  either.    Each  other 
applies  to  two ;  one  another,  to  more  than  two. 

139.  The  demonstrative  pronouns  point  out  ob- 
jects definitely.     They  are,  This  and  that,  with 
their  plurals  thej*  and  those. 

140.  OBS.  1.  Ton,  and  former  and  latter,  may  be  called  demon- 
strative pronouns,  as  well  as  this  and  that . 

141.  OBS.  2.   That  is  sometimes  a  relative,  sometimes  a  cfe- 
monstrative,  and  sometimes  a  conjunction. 

1.  It  is  a  relative,  when  it  can  be  turned  into  who  or  which;  as, 
The  days  that  (or  which)  are  past,  are  gone  forever. 

2.  It  is  a  demonstrative,  when   it  is  placed  before  a  noun,  or 
refers  to  one  at  some  distance  from  it 5   as,   That  book  is  new; 
that  is  what  I  want. 

3.  It  is  a  conjunction  when  it  can  not  be  changed  into  who  or 
which,  but  marks  a  consequence,  an  indication,  or  final  end;  as, 
He  was  so  proud,  that  he  was  universally  despised :  He  answered, 
that  he  never  was  so  happy  as  now.  Live  well,  that  you  may  to 
happy. 

142.  The  indefinite  pronouns  denote  persons  or 
things  indefinitely.    They  are,  None,  any,  all,  siich, 
whole,  some,  both,  one,  other.    The  two  last  are 
declined  like  nouns. 

143.  Among  the  indefinites  may  also  be  reckoned  such  words  as, 
no,  few,  many,  several,  and  the  like  •,  as  well  as  the  compounds, 
whoever,  whatever,  whichsoever,  etc.,  and  who,  which,  and  what,  in 
responsive  sentences(§  16,  Obs.  4).  * 

144.  None  is  used  in  both  numbers,  but  it  can  not  be  joined  tc 
a  noun.    (App.  xrv.) 

145.  PARSING  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

Adjective  Pronouns  are  parsed  by  stating  the  class  to  which 
hey  belong  and  the  word  which  they  qualify,  thus,  "  My  book.51 
Jfy,  a  possessive  adjective  pronoun,  qualifying  book. 


$  18.  ETYMOLOGY.  29 

PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  ON  NOUNS,  etc. 

Distinguish  and  parse  etymologic-ally  tlie  words  in  the  following  exercises,  at 
previously  directed. 

A  man,  he,  who,  which,  that,  his,  me,  mine,  thine, 
whose,  they,  hers,  it,  we,  us,  I,  him,  its,  horse,  mare, 
master,  thou,  theirs,  thee,  you,  my,  thy,  our,  your,  their, 
his,  her;  this,  these;  that,  those;  each,  every,  other 
any,  none,  bride,  daughter,  uncle,  wife's,  sir,  girl,  madam, 
box,  dog,  lad;  a  gay  lady;  sweet  apples;  strong  bulls; 
fat  oxen ;  a  mountainous  country. 

Compare — Rich,  merry,  furious,  covetous,  large,  little, 
good,  bad,  near,  wretched,  rigorous,  delightful,  sprightly, 
spacious,  splendid,  gay,  imprudent,  pretty. 

The  human  mind;  cold  water;  he,  thou,  she,  it; 
woody  mountains;  the  naked  rock;  youthful  jollity; 
goodness  divine;  justice  severe;  this,  thy,  others,  one; 
a  peevish  boy;  hers,  their  strokes;  pretty  girls;  his 
rapid  flight;  her  delicate  cheeks;  a  man  who;  tho 
sun  that ;  a  bird  which ;  himself,  themselves,  itself;  that 
house;  these  books. 

Correct — The  person  which  waited  on  us  yesterday. 
The  horse  who  rode  down  the  man.  The  dog  who 
was  chained  at  the  door.  Those  sort  of  trees.  These 
kind  of  persons.  The  angel  which  appeared  to  Moses. 
The  boys  which  learned  their  lessons  so  well.  The 
sun  who  shines  so  bright.  Those  kind  of  amusements. 
The  woman  which  told  me  the  story.  The  messenger 
which  carried  the  letter.  The  court  who  sat  last  week. 
The  member  which  spoke  last.  I  have  brought  three 
books,  you  may  take  either  of  them,  or  neither  of  them. 
There  were  twenty  men,  each  with  a  spear;  but  nei- 
ther of  them  was  fully  armed. 

3* 


30  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  §  19 

§  19.     THE  VERB. 

146.  A  VERB  is  a  word  used  to  express  the  act* 
being,  or  state  of  its  subject ;  as,  I  write ;  you  are; 
time  flies ;  he  is  loved.  App.  XV. 

147.  The  use  of  the  verb  in  simple  propositions  is  to  affirm  or 
declare  5  that  of  which  it  affirms,  is  called  its  subject  or  nominatire, 

148.  Verbs  are  of  two  kinds;  Transitive  and  In- 
transitive.    App.  XVI. 

149.  A  TRANSITIVE  VERB  expresses  an  act  done 
by  one  person  or  thing  to  another;  as,  "James 
strikes  the  table."    "  The  table  is  struck  by  James.11 
It  has  two  forms,  called  the  Active  and  the  Passive 
voice  (§  21). 

150.  An  INTRANSITIVE  VERB  expresses  the  being* 
or  state  of  its  subject,  or  an  act  not  done  to  another ; 
as,  I  am,  he  sleeps,  you  run. 

151.  In  this  division,  Transitive  verbs  include  all  those  which 
express  an  act  that  passes  over  from  the  actor  to  an  object  acted 
upon-,  as,  He  loves  us;   We  are  loved  by  him.     Intransitive  verbs 
include  all  verbs  not  transitive,  whether  they  express  an  action 
or  not-,  as,  I  am,  you  walk,  they  run  (See  §  21,  Obs.  2,  3). 

152.  Intransitive  verbs,  from  their  nature,  can  have  no  distinc- 
tion of  voice.     Their  form  is  generally  aotive-,  as,  I  stand,  I  run. 
A  few  admit  also  the  passive  form-,    as,  "  He  is  come;"  "they 
are  gone  .-"  equivalent  to  ." He  has  come;"  "they  have  gone.  n 

153.  Intransitive  verbs  are  sometimes  rendered  transitive,  and 
to  capable  of  a  passive  form,  viz : 

1.  By  the  addition  of  another  word-,  as,  Intrans.  I  laugh; 
Trans.  I  laugh  at;  Passive,  I  am  laughed  at. 

2.  By  adding, as  an  object, a  noun  of  similar  signification-,  as, 
Intr.  I  run;  Tr.  I  run  a  race-,  Passive,  A  race  is  run. 

3.  When  used  causatively,  to  denote  the  causing  of  the  act  or 
state  which  they  properly  express ;  as,  Walk  your  hor"d 
round  the  yard,  i.  e.  Cause  your  horse  to  walk,  etc. 


\   19.  ETYMOLOGY.  31 

154.  Transitive  verbs  in  the  active  voice,  and  intransitive 
verbs,  being  of  the  same  form,  can  be  distinguished  only  by  their 
signification  and  construction.     The  following  marks  will  enable 
the  student  to  make  this  necessary  distinction  with  ease  and  cer- 
tainty. 

1st.  A  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice  requires  an  object  af- 
ter it  to  complete  the  sense ;  as,  The  boy  studies  grammar  (§  48, 
Rem.  3).  An  intransitive  verb  requires  no  object  after  it,  but 
the  sense  is  complete  without  it-,  as,  He  sits,  you  ride. 

2d.  Every  transitive  active  verb  can  be  changed  into  the  passive 
form-,  thus,  u  James  strikes  the  table,"  can  be  changed  into  fct  The 
.table  is  struck  by  James."  But  the  intransitive  verb  can  not  be 
BO  changed ;  thus,  I  smile^  can  not  be  changed  into  I  am  smiled. 

3d.  In  the  use  of  the  transitive  verb  there  are  always  three 
things  implied  ;  the  actor,  the  art,  and  the  object  acted  upon  ;  in 
the  use  of  the  intransitive  there  are  only  two  /  the  subject  or  thing 
spoken  of,  and  the  state  or  action  attributed  to  it. 

155.  A  transitive  verb  without   an  object  is  used   intransi* 
tively  ;   as,  He  reads  and   writes  well  =  He  is  a  good  reader 
and  writer. 

156.  In  respect  of  form,  verbs  are  divided  into 
Regular,  Irregular,  and  Defective. 

157.  A  REGULAR  verb  is  one  that  forms  its  Past 
tense  in  the  Indicative  active,  and  its  Past  parti- 
ciple by  adding  ed  to  the  Present ;  as,  Present,  love  ; 
Past,  loved;  Past  participle,  loved  (37). 

158.  An  IRREGULAR  verb  is  one  that  does  not 
form  its  Past  tense  in  the  Indicative  active,  and 
Past  participle,  by  adding  ed  to  the  Present ;  thus, 
Present,  write ;  Past,  wrote ;  Past  participle,  writ- 
ten. 

159.  A  DEFECTIVE  verb  is  one  in  which  some  of 
the  parts  are  wanting.     To  this  class  belong  chiefly 
Auxiliary  and  Impersonal  verbs. 


3*2  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  $  2 

§  20.     AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

160.  The  AUXILIARY,  or  helping  verbs,  by  l!w 
help  of  which  verbs  are  principally  inflected,  are 
the  following,  which,  as  auxiliaries,  are  used  only 
in  the  present  and  the  past  tense ;  viz. 

Pres.    Do,     have,    shall,       will,       may,      can,      am,     mur* 

Past.   Did,    had,      should,    would,    might,  could,  was,    • 

The  verb  to  be  is  used  as  an  auxiliary,  in  all  its  tenses. 

161.  Am,  do,  and  have,  are  also  principal  verbs. 

162.  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Let  (used  by  some  Grammarians  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  im 
perative   mood),   is   properly  a  transitive  verb,    and  complete. 
Ought  is  a  defective  verb,  having,  like  must,  only  the  present 
cense. 

2.  Shall  implies  duty  or  obligation;  will,  purpose  or  resolution 
may,  liberty,  can,  ability.    Of  these  verbs,  the  past  ten se  should 
would,  might,  could,    is    very  indefinite  with  respect  to   time, 
being  used  to  express  duty,  purpose,  liberty,  and  ability,  some- 
times with  regard  to  what  is  past ,  sometimes  with  regard  to  what 
is  present,  and  sometimes  with  regard  to  what  is  future;  thus, 
Past.         He  could  not  do  it  then,  for  he  was  otherwise  engaged. 
Present.    I  would  do  it  with  pleasure,  if  I  could. 

Future.     If   he  would  delay  his  journey  a  few  days,  I   might 

(could,  would  or  should),  accompany  him. 

In  these  and  similar  examples,  the  auxiliaries  may  be  considered 
simply  as  denoting  liberty,  ability,  will,  or  duty,  without  any  re- 
ference to  time  in  themselves,  and  that  the  precise  time  is  indi- 
cated by  the  scope  of  the  sentence.  The  same  observation  applies 
to  must  and  ought,  implying  necessity  and  obligation. 

3.  Weuld  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  what  was  customary 5 
as  in  the  examples,  "  He  would  say,"  u  He  would  desire,"  etc 
Thus, 

Pleased  with  my  admiration,  and  the  fire 
His  speech  struck  from  me,  the  old  man  would  shake 
His  years  away,  and  act  his  young  encounters; 
Then,  having  showed  his  wounds,  he'd  sit  (him)  down. 


§  20  ETYMOLOGY.  33 

6f  WILL  and  SHALL,  WOULD  and  SHOULD. 

163.  Will  and  shall,  auxiliaries  in  the  future,  sometimes  express 
resolution  or  purpose,  and  sometimes  simple  futurity .    They  may 
be  thus  distinguished  : 

RESOLUTION  Of  PURPOSE. 

164.  WILL  expresses  the  will,  purpose,  resolution,  or  promise  of 
the  subject  with  respect  to  his  own  acts .  Thus,  I  will  go,  thou 
unit  go,  he  will  go,  express  the  resolution,  etc.  of  the  subject 
I,  thou,  he. 

165.  SHALL  expresses  the  purpose,  resolution,  etc.  not  of  the 
subject,  but  of  another  by  whom  the  act  is  determined.    Thus, 
/  shall  go,  thou  shalt  go,  James  shall  go,  express  the  resolution,, 
not  of  /,  thou,  James,  respectively,  but  of  some  other-,  as,  Johv» 
is  resolved  that  /  shall  go,  etc. 

SIMPLE  FUTURITY. 

166.  SHALL  is  used  when  a  person  foretels  what  is  future  in 
respect  to  himself;  as,  I  think  that  I  shall  go. 

167.  WILL  is  used  in  the  second  and  the  third  person,  and  SHALL 
in  the  first,  when  a  person  foretels  what  is  future  in  respect  to 
others-,  as,  /think  that  you  will  go,  that  he  will  go.     He  thinks 
that  I  shall  go. 

168.  But  after  such  words  as  if,  though,  provided,  unless,  or 
when,  while,  until,  after,  etc.,  or  after  the  relative  in  a  restrictive 
clause,  shall  is  used  instead  of  will  to  denote  futurity-,  as,  If  he 
thill  £0;  When  he  shall  appear;  All  who  shall  subscribe 

WILL  and  SHALL  interrogatively. 

169.  In  asking  questions  as  to  the  will,  purpose,  resolution,  or 
promise  of  the  person  addressed,  SHALL  is  used  in  the  first  and  the 
third  person,  and  WILL  in  the  second ;  as,  Shall  /go?  Shall  he  go* 
Will  you  go?  =  Is  it  your  purpose  that  I  shall  go,  etc.? 

170.  But  in  asking  questions  relative  to  simple  futurity,  SHALL 
is  used  in  theirs*  and  the  second  person,  and  WILL  in  the  third; 
as,  Shall  I  arrive  in  time?  Shall  you  be  at  home?   Will  the  stage 
arrive  soon? 

171.  Should  and  would  are  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  shall  and 
will.  They  are  generally  attended  with  a  supposition;  as, 

I  to  run,  I  should  soon  be  fatigued 


34  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §2L 

172.  Should  is  often  used  instead  of  ought,   to  express  present 
duty  or  obligation ;  as,   uWe  should  remember  the  poor  -,"  =  We 
ought  to  remember  the  poor. 

173.  Would  is  sometimes  used  as  a  principal  verb  for  Iwish;  asn 
"  Would  that  they  were  gone,"  for  "I  wish  that  they  were  gone.'- 
"  When  I  make  a  feast,  I  would  my  guests  should  praise  it — not 
the  cooks."     Thus  used,  it  is  in  the  present  tense.     As  a  past 
tense,  it  implies  strong  negation-,  as,  u  Ye  would  none  of  my  re- 
proof." 

§  21.     INFLECTION  OF  VERBS. 

174.  To  the  inflection  of  verbs  belong,  Voices 
Moods,  Tenses,  Numbers,  and  Persons. 

VOICE. 

175.  VOICE   is  a  particular  form  of  the  verb, 
which  shows  the  relation  of  the  subject,  or  thing 
spoken  of,  to  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb. 

176.  In  English   the   transitive   verb   has   two 
voices,  the  Active  and  the  Passive. 

177.  The  ACTIVE  VOICE  represents  the  subject 
of  the  verb  as  acting;   as,   "James  strikes  the 
table." 

Here  the  verb  "  strikes,"  in  the  active  voice,  indicates  that  its 
subject  4;  James"  acts. 

178.  The  PASSIVE  VOICE  represents  the  subject 
of  the  verb  as  acted  upon ;  as,  "  The  table  is  struck 
by  James." 

Here  the  verb  "  is  struck,"  in  the  passive  voice,  indicates  that 
its  subject  u  table"  is  acted  upon. 

179.  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  The  transitive  verb  always  expresses  the  same  act,  whether 
it  be  in  the  active  or  passive  form.  In  both  it  is  equally  transitive, 
1,  e.  the  act  expressed  by  it  in  either  form,  passes  over  from  the 


§  22.  ETYMOLOGY.  35 

person  or  thing  vting,  to  the  person  or  thing  acted  upon.  Hence 
the  same  idea  may  be  expressed  witn  equal  propriety  in  both 
forms,  simply  by  changing  the  object  of  tne  active  voice  into  thfe 
subject  of  the  passive;  thus, 

Actively.      Ccpsar  conquered  Gaul. 

Passively.    Gaul  was  conquered  by  Caesar. 

2.  The  same  verbs  are  sometimes  used  in  a  transitive,    and 
sometimes  in  an  intransitive  sense-,  thus,  in  the  phrase,  "Charity 
thinketh  no  evil,"  think  is  transitive;  in  the  phrase,    u  Think  on 
me,"  it  is  intransitive. 

3.  Many  verbs  in  the  active  voice,  by  an  idiom  peculiar  to  the 
English,  are  used  in  a  sense  nearly  allied  to  the  passive,  but  for 
which  the  passive  will  not  always  be  a  proper  substitute.     Thus, 
we  say.  uThis  field  ploug hs  well;17  "These  lines  read  smoothly  •," 
"  This  fruit  tastes  bitter;"  "Linen  wears  better  than  cotton." 
The  idea  here  expressed,  is  quite  different  from  that  expressed  by 
the  passive  form,  u  This  field  is  well  ploughed;"  "  These  lines 
are  smoothly  read."     Sometimes,  however,  the  same  idea  is  ex- 
pressed by  both  forms;  thus,  "Wheat  sells  readily,"  or  "is  sold 
readily  at  an  advanced  price."  Expressions  of  this  kind  are  usually 
made  in  French  by  the  reflected  verb;  thus,  "Ce  champ  se  labours 
bien;"  "Ces  lignes  se  lisent  aisement."  When  used  in  this  sense, 
they  may  properly  be  ranked  with  intransitive  verbs,  as  they  are 
never  followed  by  an  objective  case. 

§  22.    MOODS.* 

180.  MOOD  is  the  mode  or  manner  of  expressing 
the  signification  of  the  verb. 

181.  Verbs  have  Jive  moods ;   namely,  the  In- 
dicative, Potential,  Subjunctive,  Imperative,  and  In- 
Jinitive.     App.  XVIL 

*  Explanations  of  the  rnoods  and  tenses'of  verbs,  are  inserted  here  for  the  sako 
of  order :  but  it  would  perhaps  be  improper  to  detain  the  learner  so  long  as  to 
commit  them  to  memory :  He  may,  therefore,  after  getting  the  definition  of  * 
v«*rb,  proceed  to  the  inflection  of  it,  without  delay;  and  when  lie  comes  to  the 
exercises  on  the  verbs,  he  can  look  Lack  to  the  definition  of  verbs,  moods, 
fee  ,  as  occasion  may  require 


30  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  22 

1.  The  Indicative  mood  declares  the  fact  ex- 
pressed by  the  verb,  simply  and  without  limitation ; 
as,  He  loves;  He  is  loved. 

2.  The  Potential  mood  declares,  not  the  fact  ex- 
Dressed  by  the  verb,  but  only  its  possibility,  or  the 
liberty,  power,  will,  or  obligation  of  the  subject 
with  respect  to  it ;  as,  The  wind  may  blow ;  We 
may  walk  or  ride ;  I  can  swim ;  He  would  not  stay ; 
You  should  obey  your  parents. 

3.  The  Subjunctive  mood  represents  the  fact 
expressed  by  the  verb,  not  as  actual,  but  as  condi- 
tional,   desirable,    or    contingent ;    as,    "  If  thy 
presence  go  not  with  us,  carry  us  not  up  hence." 
App.  XVIIL 

4.  The  Imperative  mood   commands,   exhorts, 
entreats,  or  permits ;  as,  Do  this ;  Remember  thy 
Creator;  Hear,  O  my  people;  Go  thy  way  for 
this  time. 

5.  The  Infinitive  mood  expresses  a  thing  in  a 
general  manner,  without  any  distinction  of  person 
or  number,  and  commonly  has  to  before  it ;  as,  To 
love. 

182.          OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  MOODS. 

1.  The  future  indicative  is  sometimes  used  potentially  5  i.  e.  the 
auxiliaries  will  and  shall  belong  to  the  present  potential,  as  well 
as  way,  or  can,  or  must ,  when  they  express  present  Willingness  or 
obligation.     In  this  case,  the  futurity  implied  is  contingent,  and 
not  absolute-,  as,  He  will  do  it,  if  properly  solicited.     And  hence 
the  corresponding  would  and  should,  as  well  as  might  and  could, 
belong  *o  the  past  tense.     The  potential  mood  has  no  future  tense , 

2.  The  subjunctive  mood  is  always  dependent  upon,  or  is  sub- 
\rtined  to,  another  verb,  expressed  or  understood.     It  is  sometimes 


§  23  ETYMOLOGY.  37 

called  conjunctive,  because  it  is  usually  preceded  by  a  conjunction; 
as,  if,  though,  unless,  etc.  Sometimes  it  is  called  conditional,  be- 
cause it  usually  expresses  a  condition  on  which  something  is  sus- 
pended. It  differs  in  form  from  the  indicative,  in  the  present 
tense  only,  in  the  verb  to  be,  in  the  present  and  past. 

NOTE.  Both  the  indicative  and  potential,  with  a  conjunctive 
particle  prefixed,  are  used  subjunctively;  i.  e.  they  are  used  to 
express  what  is  conditional  or  contingent,  and  with  dependence 
on  another  verb;  as,  "  If  he  sleeps  (now),  he  will  do  well;"  u  He 
would  go,  if  he  could  (go).1' 

3.  The  imperative  mood,  strictly  speuking,  has  only  the  second 
person,  singular  and  plural;  because,  in  commanding,  exhorting, 
etc.,  the  language  of  address  is  always  used;  thus,   u  Let  him 
love,"  is  equivalent  to,  u  Let  thou  him  love;"  where  Let  is  the 
proper  imperative,  and  love  the  infinitive  governed  by  it.     (Syn- 
tax, 387.) 

4.  The  infinitive  mood  may  be  considered  as  a  verbal  noun, 
having  the  nominative  and  objective  cases,  but  not  the  possessive: 
and  hence  it  is  used  both  as  the  subject  of  another  verb,  and  as  the 
object  after  it.     (Syntax,  §  47,  Rule  n.;  and  $  48,  Rule  I.) 

§  23.    TENSES  OR  DISTINCTIONS  OF  TIME. 

183.  TENSES  are  certain  forms  of  the  verb, which 
serve  to  point  out  the  distinctions  of  time. 

184.  Time  is  naturally  divided  into  the  Present,  Past  and  Fu- 
ture: And  an  action  may  be  represented,  either  as  incomplete  and 
continuing,  or,  as  completed  at  the  time  spoken  of.  This  gives 
rise  to  six  tenses,  only  two  of  which  are  expressed  in  English  by 
a  distinct  form  of  the  verb.  The  others  are  formed  by  the  aid  of 
auxiliary  verbs,  thus: 

PFF«*FNT  $  ^ct^on  continuing ;  as,  I  love,  I  do  love,  or  I  am  loving. 

\  Action  completed,  as,  I  have  loved. 
PAST          $  Action  continuing ,-as. I  loved. I  did  love, or  Iwas  loving. 

£  Action  completed;  as  I  had  loved, 
p  5  ^ctwn  continuing;  as,  I  shall  or  will  love 

)  Action  completed;  as,  I  shall  have  loved. 
4 


28  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  23 

185.  The  tenses  in  English  are  six,  namely :  the 
Present,  the  Present-perfect,  the  Past,  the  Past- 
perfect,  the  Future,  and  the  Future-perfect. 

1.  The  Present  tense  expresses  what  is  going  on 
at  the  present  time ;  as,  I  love  you. 

2.  The  Present-perfect  tense  represents  an  action 
or  event  as  completed  at  the  present  time;  as,  "  John 
has  cut  his  finger ;"  "  I  have  sold  my  horse ;"  "  I 
have  done  nothing  this  week." 

3.  The  Past  tense  expresses  what  took  place  in 
past  time  ;  as,  "  God  said,  let  there  be  light ;"  "  The 
ship  sailed  when  the  mail  arrived." 

4.  The  Past-perfect  tense  represents  an  action 
or  event  as  completed  at  or  before  a  certain  past 
time  ;  as,  "I  had  walked  six  miles  that  day;"  "  All 
the  judges  had  taken  their  places  before  Sir  Roger 
came/' 

5.  The  Future  tense  expresses   what  will   take 
place  in  future  time  ;  as,  "  I  will  see  you  again,  and 
your  hearts  shall  rejoice." 

6.  The  Future-perfect  tense  intimates  that  ap 
action  or  event  will  be  completed  at  or  before  a 
certain  time  yet  future ;  as,  "I  shall  have  got  my 
lesson  before  ten  o'clock  to-morrow.1' 

NOTE.  The  tenses  inflected  without  an  auxiliary  are  called 
SIMPLE  tenses-,  those  with  an  auxiliary,  are  called  COMPOUND 
tenses.  In  the  common  form  of  the  verb,  the  simple  tenses  are  the 
Present  and  Past  Indicative  and  Subjunctive,  Active-,  all  the  other 
tenses  are  compound 


j  24.  ETYMOLOGY.  39 

186.     §  24.     OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  TENSES. 

I.  The  Present  tense  in  the  simple  form  is  used  as  follows: 

1.  It  expresses  the  simple  existence  of  the  fact-,  as,  He  speaks^ 
She  writes;  They  walk. 

2.  It  is  used  to  express  what  is  habitual  or  always  true;  as,  He 
takes  sniftff;  She  goes  to  church-,  Virtue  is  its  own  reward.     In 
this  sense  it  is  applied  to  express  the  feelings  which  persons  long 
since  dead,  or  events  already  past  usually  excite  in  our  minds  •,  as, 
Nero  is  abhorred  for  his  cruelty  5  Milton  is  admired  for  his  sub- 
limity. 

3.  In  historical  narration,  it  is  used  with  great  effect  for  the 
Past  tense-,  as,  "Caesar  leaves  Gaul,  crosses  the  Rubicon,  and 
enters  Italy  with  five  thousand  men."  (552.5). 

4.  It  is  used  sometimes,  instead  of  the  present-perfect  tense,  in 
speaking  of  authors  long  since  dead,  when  reference  is  made  to 
their  works  which  still  exist;  as,  "  Moses  tells  us  who  were  the 
descendants  of  Abraham;"    "  Virgil  imitates  Homer;"  instead  of 
16  has  told,"  "  has  imitated" 

5.  When  preceded  by  such  words  as  when,  before,  as  soon  as, 
after,  and  the  like,  it  expresses  the  relative  time  of  a  future  action  j 
as,  When  he  comes,  he  will  be  welcome;  As  soon  as  the  Post 
arrives,  the  letters  will  be  distributed. 

II.  The  Present-perfect — In  the  use  of  this  tense,  it  matters 
not  how  long  ago  the  act  referred  to  may  have  been  performed,  if 
it  were  in  a  period  reaching  to  and  embracing  the  present,  or  a 
part  of  which  is  not  yet  past;  as,  "  Many  discoveries  in  the  arts 
have  been  made  since  the  days. of  Bacon"  (that  is,  in  the  period 
reaching  from  that  time  to  the  present).     On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  time  of  an  act  mentioned  is  past,  and  does  not  include  the  pre. 
sent,  this  tense  can  not  be  used,  however  near  the  time  may  be. 
Thus,  we  cannot  properly  say,   u  I  have  seen  your  friend  a  mo- 
ment ago ;  but  "  I  saw  your  friend,"  etc.     The  following  usages 
may  be  noticed. 

1.  This  tense  is  used  to  express  an  act  or  state  continued  through 
a  period  of  time  reaching  to  the  present;  as,  "  He  has  studied 
grammar  six  months" — u  He  has  been  absent  [now]  six  years." 

2.  It  is  used  to  express  acts  long  since  completed,  when  the  re- 
ference is  not  to  the  act  of  finishing,  but  to  the  thing  finished  <wd 


40  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  24. 

still  existing-,  as,  "Cicero  has  written  orations" — "Moses  has 
told  us  many  important  facts  in  his  writings" — "Of  old  thou  hast 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  earth,  and  the 'heavens  are  the  work  of 
thy  hand."  But  if  the  thing  completed  does  not  now  exist,  or  if 
the  reference  is  to  the  act  of  finishing,  and  not  to  the  present  con- 
tinuance of  the  thing  finished,  this  tense  can  not  be  used-,  thus, 
we  can  not  say,  "  Cicero  has  written  poems,"  because  no  such 
productions  now  remain.  Nor,  "  In  the  beginning  God  has  crea- 
ted the  heavens,"  because  reference  is  only  to  the  act  of  God  at  a 
certain  past  time  indicated  by  the  words  "  In  the  beginning." 

3.  It  is  used  in  the  same  manner  as  the  present  (186,   I,  5),  in- 
stead of  th«  future-perfect,  to  represent  an  action,  etc.,  as  perfect 
at  a  future  time;  as,  "The  cock  shall  not  crow,  till  thou  hast 
denied  me  thrice." 

4.  Sometimes  this  tense   is  used  in  effect  to  deny  the  present 
existence  of  that  of  which  the  verb  expresses  the  completion-,  as, 
"  I  have  been  young" — meaning,  this  is  now  finished — I  am  young 
no  more  •,  that  is,  u  I  am  old." 

NOTE. — This  tense  corresponds  to  the  Latin  perfect  definite. 

III. — 1.  The  Past  tense — The  time  expressed  by  this  tense  is 
regarded  as  entirely  past,  and,  however  near  to  the  present,  it 
does  not  embrace  it;  as,  I  saw  your  friend  a  moment  ago" — "  I 
wrote  yesterday." 

2.  In  such  expressions  as  "I  wrote  this  morning" — "  this  week" 
— "  this  year,"  etc.,  the  reference  is  to  a  point  of  time  now  en- 
tirely past,  in  these  yet  unfinished  periods. 

3.  This  tense  is  used  to  express  what  was  customary  in  past 
time;  as,  "  She  attended  church  regularly  all  her  life." 

IV.  The  Past-perfect  tense  (Pluperfect)  has  the  same  relation  to 
the  Past  tense  that  the  Present-perfect  has  to  the  Present  tense.  It 
connects  the   action  or  event  expressed  by  the  verb  with    some 
point  or  period  of  time  now  wholly  past ,  at  or  before  which  it  was 
completed;  as,  then,  yesterday,  last  century,  etc.;    as  "  He  had 
THEN  studied  grammar  six  months;"  "  He  had  been  a  soldier  in 
his  youth;"  I  had  written  yesterday;  Many  discoveries  in  philo- 
sophy and  the  arts  had  been  made  before  the  days  of  Bacon. 

V.  The  same  general  observations  apply  to  the  Future  and 
Future-perfect  tenses,  in  relation  to  a  point  or  period  of  time  yet 
future. 


§  25  ETYMOLOGY.  41 

VI.  The  six  tenses  here  enumerated  are  all  found  only  in  the 
indicative.     The    potential   has  only  four  tenses ;  the  subjunctive, 
one,  sometimes  two,  in  a  form  distinct  from  that  of  the  indica- 
tive ;  the  imperative  but  one ;  the  infinitive  two  ;  and  the  parti- 
ciple three. 

VII.  The  Past  tenses  both  of  the  potential  and  the  subjunctive 
mood  are  much  less  definite  with  respect  to  the  time  of  the  action 
or  state  expressed  by  the  verb,  than  the  same  tenses  in  the  indi- 
cative.    For  examples  of  this  in  the  potential  mood,   see  §  20 
OBS.  2. 

The  Past  subjunctive  expresses  contingency,  etc.a  respecting 
what  is  past,  but  yet  unknown,  only  when  referring  to  past  time 
expressed  or  implied;  as,  u  If  I  saw  your  friend  last  year,  I  have 
forgotten  it."  But  in  connection  with  the  potential  mood,  or  not 
referring  to  past  time,  the  Past  subjunctive  has  this  peculiarity 
of  usage — it  expresses  a  supposition  with  respect  to  something 
present,  but  implies  a  denial  of  the  thing  supposed;  thus,  "  If  I 
had  the  money  now,  I  would  pay  it,"  implies  that  I  have  it  not. 
"  If  he  were  well  [now],  he  would  go-,"  implying  u  he  is  sick." 
The  present  tense  here  conveys  a  very  different  idea-,  thus,  lilfl 
have  the  money,  I  will  pay  it,"  etc.  In  order  to  express  the  first 
of  these  examples  in  past  time,  the  Past-perfect  must  be  usedj 
thus,  If  I  had  had  the  money  yesterday,  I  would  have  paid  it. 

§  25.    PARTICIPLES. 

187.  A  PARTICIPLE  is  a  vford  which,  as  a  verb, 
expresses  an  action  or  state,  and,  as  an  adjective, 
qualifies  a  noun ;  as,  "  He  came  seeing ;"  "  Having 
finished  our  task,  we  may  play." 

188.  Participles  are  so  called,  because  they  belong  partly  to  the 
verb,  and  partly  to  the  adjective.  From  the  former,  they  have 
signification,  voice,  and  tense;  and  they  perform  the  office  of  the 
latter. 

189.  Verbs  have  three  participles ;  the  present, 
the  past,  and  the  perfect ;  as,  loving,  loved,  having 


42  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  $  535 

loved,  in  the  active  voice ;  and  being  loved,  loved, 
having  been  loved,  in  the  passive. 

190.  The  present  participle  in  the  active  voice  ends 
always  in  ing.     In  all  verbs,  it  has  an  active  signifi- 
cation, and  denotes  an  action  or  state  as  continuing 
and  progressive ;  as,  "  James  is  building  a  house."    In 
some  verbs,  it  has  also  a  passive  progressive  significa- 
tion; as,  "The  house  is  building."     App.  XIX. 

191.  The  Present  participle  passive  has  always  a 
passive  signification,  but  it  has  the  same  difference  of 
meaning  with  respect  to  the  time  or  state  of  the  action 
as  the  present  indicative  passive  App,  XIX. 

192.  The  Past  participle  has  the  same  form  in  both  voices.    In 
the  active  voice,  it  belongs  equally  to  transitive  and  intransitive 
verbs — has  always  an  active  sense — forms,  with  the  auxiliaries, 
the  Present-perfect  and  Past-perfect  tenses — and  is  never  found 
but  thus  combined-,  as,  "  has  loved,"  "  had  loved,"  etc.     In  the 
passive  voicet  it  has  always  a  passive  sense,  and,  with  the  verb 
to  be  as  an  auxiliary,  forms  the  passive  voice-,  as,  aHe  is  loved •," 
or  without  it,  qualifies  a  noun  or  pronoun-,  as,  "  A  man  loved  by 
all,  hated  by  none."    The  difference  between  the  active  and  the 
passive  participle  will  be  seen  in  the  following  examples,  viz : 
ACTIVE — "  He  has  concealed  a  dagger  under  his  cloak-,"  PASSIVE 
— u  He  has  a  dagger  concealed  under  his  cloak." 

193.  The  Perfect  participle  is  always  compound,  and  repre- 
sents an  action  or  state  as  completed  at  the  time  referred  to.     It 
has  always  an  active  sense  in  the  active  voice,  and  a  passive 
sense  in  the  passive;  as,   ACTIVE  -.  "Having  finished  our  task, 
we  may  play."    PASSIVE  :  "  Our  task  having  been  finished,  we 
may  play." 

194.  The  Present  participle  active,  and  the  Past 
participle  passive,  when  separated  from  the  idea    of 
time,  become  adjectives,  and  are  usually  called  parti- 
cipial adjectives;  as,  "An  amusing  story;"  "Abound 
book." 


§  26,  27.  ETYMOLOGY.  43 

195.  The  participle  in  ing  is  often  used  as  a  verbal 
noun  (§  5,  Obs.  3),  having  the  nominative  and  objective 
cases,  but  not  the  possessive.  As  a  verbal  noun,  the 
participle  of  a  transitive  verb  may  still  retain  the  go- 
vernment of  the  verb ;  as,  "In  keeping  his  command- 
ments,  there  is  a  great  reward :"  or,  it  may  be  divested 
of  it,  by  inserting  the  preposition  of  after  it ;  as,  "  In 
the  keeping  of  his  commandments."  When  of  follows 
the  participle,  the  should  precede  it  (§  65,  R.  XVI). 

196.  So  also  the  Perfect  participle-,  as,  "  There  is  satisfaction 
in  having  done  well" — ;t  His  having  done  his  duty,  was  after- 
ward a  source  of  satisfaction." 

§  26.     NUMBER  AND  PERSON. 

197.  Every  tense  of  the  verb,  except  in  the  infi- 
nitive mood,  has  two  NUMBERS,  the  singular  and 
the  plural ;  and  in  each  of  these,  three  PERSONS. 

The  First  person  asserts  of  the  person  speaking ; 
as,  /write,  we  write. 

The  Second,  asserts  of  the  person  spoken  to ; 
as,  Thou  writest,  ye  or  you  write. 

The  Third,  asserts  of  the  person  or  thing  spoken 
of;  as,  He  writes,  they  write.  §  6, and  §  15.  Obs.  1. 

§  27.     CONJUGATION. 

198.  The  conjugation  of  a  verb,  is  the  regular 
combination  and  arrangement  of  its  several  moods, 
tenses,  numbers  and  persons. 

199.  In  the  active  voice,  most  verbs  have  two  forms  ; 
the  Common,  and  tihe  Progressive.     See  App.  XIX,  I.  1. 

I.  The  Common  form  expresses  the  simple  existence 
of  the  fact;  as,  "He  speaks,19  "She  writes," 
"They  talk." 


44  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR*.  §  27 

2.  The  Progressive  form  represents  an  action  as 
begun,  and  in  progress,  but  not  completed.  It 
is  formed  by  annexing  the  present  participle  to 
the  verb  "to  be,"  through  all  its  moods  and 
tenses;  as,  "I  am  writing,"  &c.  (§  30). 

200.  Besides  these,in  the  present  and  the  past  indicative,  there 
is  a  third  form,  called  the  Emphatic,  used  to  express  a  fact  with 
emphasis  or   force.     It  is  formed  by  prefixing  to  the  verb  the 
auxiliary  do,  in  the  present  tense,  and  did,  in  the  past  5  as,  u  I  do 
write"—"  I  did  write."     The  other  tenses,  and   also  the   pro- 
gressive form  and  passive  voice,  are  rendered  emphatic,  by  pla- 
cing emphasis  on  the  auxiliary;  as,  "I  have  written" — UI  am 
writing"— "  The  letter  t»  written." 

201.  To  these  may  be  added,  the  solemn  form  of  the  third  per- 
son singular,  present  indicative,  ending  in  th,  or  eth,  instead  of 
the  common,  ending  in  s  or  es.     Thus — solemn  form,  loveth,  hath 
loved;  common,  loves,  has  loved.    Need  is  also  used  for  needs. 

202.  The  tenses  of  the  verb,  inflected  without  an 
auxiliary,  are  called  SIMPLE  tenses ;  those  inflected  with 
an  auxiliary  are  called  COMPOUND  tenses. 

203.  The  principal  parts  of  the  verb  are   the 
Present  indicative,  the  Past  indicative,   and  the 
Past  participle.    In  parsing,  the  mentioning  of  these 
parts  is  called  conjugating  the  verb.     Thus  :— 

Present.  Past.         Past  participle. 

Regular  (157),         Love,  loved,  loved. 

Irregular  (158),      Write,  wrote,  written. 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  REGULAR  VERB  "To  LOVE." 

204.  The  regular  transitive  verb  "  To  laie"  is 
inflected  through  all  its  moods  and  tenses,  as  fol- 
lows : 


§  27.  ETYMOLOGY.  45 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Prtsent,  love.  Past,  loved.        Past  participle  t  toved 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
PRESENT  TENSE.* 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  love.  1.  We  love. 

2.  Thou  lovest.  2.  You  love. 

3.  He  loves  (or  loveth) .  3.  They  love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT  TENSE  (PERFECT). 
Sign,  have. 

1.  I  have  loved.  1.  We  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  hast  loved.  2.  You  have  loved. 

3.  He  has  or  hath  loved.  3.  They  have  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  I  loved.  1.  We  loved. 

2.  Thou  lovedst.  2.  You  loved. 

3.  He  loved.  3.  They  loved. 

PAST-PERFECT  TENSE  (PLUPERFECT). 
Sign,  had. 

1.  I  had  loved.  .  1.  We  had  loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved.  2.  You  had  loved. 

3.  He  had  loved.  3.  They  had  loved, 

*  EMPHATIC  FORMS. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

2.  I  do  love.  1.  We  do  love. 

2.  Thou  dost  love.  2.  You  do  love. 

3.  He  does  or  doth  love  3.  Theydolova 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  I  did  love.  1.  We  did  love 

2.  Thou  didst  love.  2.  You  did  love. 
3   He  did  love.                                       3   They  did  love 


46  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  27 

FUTURE  TENSE. 
Signs,  shall,  will  — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  love.  1.  We  shall  love. 

2.  Thou  shalt  love.  2.  You  shall  love. 

3.  He  shall  love.  3.  They  shall  love. 

FUTURE-PFRFECT  TENSE. 
Signs,  shall  have,  will  have. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  have  loved.  1.  We  shall  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  shalt  have  loved.  2.  You  shall  have  loved. 

3.  He  shall  have  loved.  3.  They  shall  have  loved. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Signs,  may,  can}  must. — Inflect  with  each. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  love.  1.  We  may  love. 

2.  Thou  mayst  love.  2.  You  may  love. 

3.  He  may  love.  3.  They  may  love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT  TENSE  (PERFECT). 
Signs,  may  have,  can  have,*  must  have. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  may  have  loved.  1.  We  may  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  loved.          2.  You  may  have  loved. 

3.  He  may  have  loved.  3.  They  may  have  loved 

PAST  TENSE. 
Signs,  might,  could,  would,  should.— Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  might  love.  1.  We  might  love. 

2.  Thou  mightst  love.  2.  You  might  love. 

3.  He  might  love.  3.  They  might  love. 

PAST-PERFECT  TENSE  (PLUPERFECT). 
Signs,  might  have,  could  have,  would  have,  should  have. — Inflect  with  eaoo. 

1.  I  might  have  loved.  1.  We  might  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved.       2.  You  might  have  loved. 

3.  He  might  have  loved.  3.  They  might  have  loved. 

*Can  haw  is  not  used  in  affirmative  sentences. 


4  27.  ETYMOLOGY.  47 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
PRESENT  TENSE  (Subjunctive  form) 
Singular.  Plura1 

1  If  I  love.  I.  If  we  love. 

2  //"  thou  love.  2.  //"you  love. 
3.  #  he  love.                                 3.  If  they  love. 

PRESENT  TENSE  (Indicative  form) . 

1.  If  I  love.  1.  //  we  love. 

2.  If  thou  lovest.  2.  Tf  you  love. 

3.  if  he  loves  (or  loveth).  3.  If  they  love. 

PRESENT-PEEFECT  TENSE  (PERFECT). 

1.  If  I  have  loved.  1.  Tjf  we  have  loved. 

2.  If  thou  hast  loved.  2.  If  you  have  loved. 

3.  Tjf  he  has  or  hath  loved.  3.  If  they  have  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  loved.  1.  If  we  loved. 

2.  If  thou  lovedst.  2.  Jjf  you  loved. 

3.  .If  he  loved.  3.  If  they  loved. 

PAST-PERFECT  TENSE  (PLUPERFECT). 

l.Ifl  had  loved.  1.  //"we  had  loved. 

2.  Jf  thou  hadst  loved.  2.  j/"  you  had  loved. 

3.  #"  he  had  loved.  3.  If  they  had  loved. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  love.  1.  If  we  shall  or  will  love. 

2.  IfihoM  shalt  or  wilt  love.       2.  If  you  shall  or  will  love, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  love.  3.  If  they  shall  or  will  love. 

*The  Present  subjunctive  is  here  given  in  two  forms :  1st,  in  the  subjunctive 
rvr  elliptical  form,  used  when  both  contingency  and  futurity  are  implied ;  and  2d, 
the  indicative  form,  used  when  contingency  only,  and  not  futurity  is  implied.  In 
parsing,  the  latter  should  be  called  the  "  indicative  used  subjunctively,"  being 
Hi*  indicative  mood  in  form,  and  rendered  subjunctive  only  by  the  conjunction 
prefixed.  This  is  true  also  of  the  other  tenses  in  this  mood. 

TLe  emphatic  forms  of  the  present  are,  If  I  do  love,  if  tliou  do  /ov«,  if  he  do 
?<w«,  etc. ;  of  the  past,  If  I  did  tovg,  if  thou  didst  love,  etc.  as  in  the  indicative 


48  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  27 

FUTURE-PERFECT  TENSE. 

1. If  I  shall  or  will  have  loved.  I. If  we  shall  or  will  have  loved. 
2. If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved.  2. If  you  shall  or  will  have  loved 
3.  If  he  shall  or  will  have  loved.  3.  If  they  shall  or  will  have  loved 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Common  form.  2.  Love,  or  love  thou.  2.  Love,  or  love  ye  or  you 
Emphatic  form .  2.  Do  thou  love.  2.  Do  ye  or  you  love. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
PRESENT,  to  love.  PERFECT,  to  have  loved 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT,  loving.       PAST,  loved.      PERFECT,  having  loved. 

EXERCISE. 

Inflect  the  following  irregular  verbs  in.  the  same  manner  as  the  verb  "  to  love" : 
Present.  Past.  Past  Participle. 

Go  went  gone 

Write  wrote  written 

Do  did  done 

Fall  fell  fallen 

Give  gave  given 

Have  had  had 

^05.  PARSING. — A  verb  is  parsed  by  stating  its  class  (transitive 
or  intransitive),  its  form  (regular  or  irregular),  conjugating  it, 
ii  irregular*  ($  32),  and  stating  its  tense,  mood,  voice,  person,  and 
number,  and  also  the  subject  of  which  it  affirms ;  thus,  "  He  loves 
study.  Loves  is  a  verb  transitive,  found  in  the  present  indica- 
tive active,  third  person  singular,  and  affirms  of  its  subject  He.1 

*In  parsing,  it  will  save  time  to  omit  conjugating  the  verb  when  it  is  regular ; 
and  it  is  unnecessary,  because  its  being  announced  to  be  regular  sufficiently  as. 
certains  its  principal  parts.  All  irregular  verbs  should  be  conjugated  as  in  §  32. 
Every  teacher,  however,  will  adopt  the  course  which  he  prefers. 

t  In  parsing,  it  is  important  and  will  save  much  time  to  state  every  thing  re. 
quired  in  as  few  words  as  possible,  to  observe  always  the  same  order,  and  with- 
out waiting  to  have  every  thing  drawn  out  by  questions. 


§  27.  ETYMOLOGY.  49 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  TENSES  OF  VERBS,  AND  CASES  OF  ftOUNS 
AND  PRONOUNS. 

Tell  the  tense,  mood,  person,  and  number  of — They 
love  ;  learn  you  ;  they  had  walked  ;  he  shall  have 
learned;  thou  hadst  painted;  we  can  gain;  to  form; 
to  have  joined ;  obeys  ;  lovedst  ;  teaches  ;  we  could 
stand;  she  has  learned;  we  shall  have  gone;  they  will 
have  come;  I  do  love;  thou  didst  love;  they  did  love. 

Parse  the  following  words  and  sentences:* — We  love 
him ;  I  love  you ;  James  loves  me ;  it  amuses  him ;  we 
shall  conduct  them ;  they  will  divide  the  spoil ;  soldiers 
should  defend  their  country ;  friends  invite  friends ;  she 
can  read  her  lesson ;  she  may  play  a  tune ;  you  might 
please  her;  thou  mayst  ask  him;  he  may  have  betrayed 
us ;  we  might  have  diverted  the  children ;  Tom  can  de- 
liver the  message. 

I  love ;  to  love ;  love ;  reprove  thou ;  has  loved ;  we 
tied  the  knot ;  if  we  love ;  if  thou  love ;  they  could  have 
commanded  armies ;  to  love ;  to  baptize ;  to  have  loved ; 
loved;  loving;  to  survey;  having  surveyed;  write  a  let- 
ter ;  read  your  lesson ;  thou  hast  obeyed  my  voice ;  ho- 
nour thy  father ;  his  mother  teaches  him ;  love ;  loved 

NOMINATIVE  AND  OBJECTIVE. 

206,  The  teacher,  if  he  chooses,  may  now  acquaint  the  learner 
with  the  difference  between  the  Nominative  and  Objective. 

*  QUESTIONS  which  may  be  put  to  the  pupils :— How  do  you  know  that 
love  is  plural?  Ans.  Because  we,  its  nominative,  is  plural  How  do  you  know 
that  love  is  the  first  person  ?  Ans.  Because  we  is  a  pronoun  of  the  first  person,  and 
the  verb  is  always  of  the  same  number  and  person  with  the  noun  or  pronoun 
before  it. 

Many  of  the  phrases  in  this  page  may  be  converted  into  exercises  of  a  different 
kind ;  thus,  the  meaning  of  the  sentence,  We  love  him,  may  be  expressed  by  lh« 
pass  ve  voice ;  as,  He  is  loved  by  us.  It  may  also  be  turned  into  a  question,  or 
made  a  negative ;  as,  Do  we  love  him  ?  &c.  We  do  not  love  him 

5 


50  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  28. 

When  the  verb  is  active,  the  Nominative  acts;  the  Objective  is 
acted  upon;  as,  He  eats  apples. 

The  Nominative  commonly  comes  before  the  verb  •,  the  Objective, 
after  it;  as,  We  saw  them.  In  asking  questions,  the  nominative 
follows  the  verb  in  the  simple  tenses,  and  the  auxiliary  in  the 
compound  tenses;  as,  'Lovestthou  me?  did  he  come?  may  we  go? 
is  it  finished? 

§  28.  NEGATIVE  FORM  OF  THE  VERB. 

207.  The  verb  is  made  to  deny,  by  placing  the  word  not  after 
the  simple  form;  as,  u  Thou  lovest  not;"  and  between  the  auxi- 
liary and  the  verb  in  the  compound  form;  as,  "  I  do  not  love." 
When  two  auxiliaries  are  used,  it  is  placed  between  them;  as, 
44  I  would  not  have  loved." 

208.  In  the  infinitive  and  participles,  the  negative  is  put  first; 
as,  u  Not  to  love"— "  Not  1-oving." 

209.  The  simple  form  is  seldom  used  with  the  negative.    In  the 
present  and  past  tenses,  the  compound  or  emphatic  form  is  more 
common.     The  following  synopsis  will  show  the  manner  of  using 
the  negative  : 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present.       1 .  I  do  not  love.  2.  Thou  dost  not  love,  etc. 

Pres.-perf.  1.  I  have  not  loved.  2.  Thou  hast  not  loved,  etc. 

Past.  1.  I  did  not  love.  2.  Thou  didst  not  love,  etc. 

Past-perf.    1.  I  had  not  loved.  2.  Thou  hadst  not  loved,  et  . 

Future.       1.  I  will  not  love.  2.  Thou  wilt  not  love,  etc. 

Fut.-pcrf.    1.  I  shall  not  have  2.  Thou  shalt  not  have  loved, 
loved.  etc. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present.        1.  I  can  not  love.  2.  Thou  canst  not  love,  etc. 

Pres.-perf.   f.  I  may  not  have  2.  Thou  mayst  not  have  loved, 

loved.  etc. 

Past.  1.  I  might  not  love.  2.  Thou  mightst  not  love,  etc. 

Past-perf.    1 .  I  might  not  have  2.  Thou  mightst  not  have  loved, 
loved.  etc. 


5  28  ETYMOLOGY.  51 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 
Present.       1.  If  I  do  not  love.      2.  If  thou  do  not  love,  etc. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

Singular.  Plural. 

2.  Love  not,  or  do  not  thou  love.  2.  Love  not,  or  do  not  ye  love. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 
Present.     Not  to  love .  Perfect.     Not  to  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.     Not  loving.  Past.     Not  loved. 

Perfect.     Not  having  loved. 

Interrogative  form  of  the  Verb. 

210.  The  verb  is  made  to  ask  a  question  by  placing  the  nomi- 
native,or  subject, after  the  simpl-e  form;  as,  u  Lovest  thou?"  and 
between  the  auxiliary  and  the  verb  in  the  compound  forms;  as, 
"Do  I  love?"     When  there  are  two  auxiliaries,  the  nominative 
is  placed  between  them:  as,  u  Shall  I  have  loved?" 

211.  The  subjunctive,  imperative,  infinitive,  and  participles, 
can  not  have  the  interrogative  form. 

212.  The  simple  form  of  the  verb  is  seldom  used  interrogatively. 
The  following  synopsis  will  show  how  the  verb  is  put  into  the 
interrogative  form : 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

Present.      1.  Do  I  love?  2.  Dost  thou  love?  etc. 

Pres.-perf.  I.  Have  I  loved?          2.  Hast  thou  loved?  etc. 
Past.  1.  Did  I  love?  2.  Didst  thou  love?  etc. 

Past  -perf.  1.  Had  I  loved?  2.  Hadst  thou  loved?  etc, 

Future.       1.  Shall  I  love?  2.  Wilt  thou  love?  etc. 

Fut.-perf.  1.  Shall  I  have  loved?  2.  Wilt  thou  have  loved?  etc 

POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

Present.      1.  May  I  love?  2.  Canst  thou  love?  etc. 

Prcs.-perf.  I.  May  I  have  loved?  2.  Canst  thou  have  loved?  etc. 
Past.  1.  Might  I  love?          2.  Couldst  thou  love?  etc. 

Past  -perf.  I.  Might  I  have  2.  Couldst  thou  have  loved? 

loved?  etc. 

213.  Interrogative  sentences  are  made  negative  by  placing  the 
negative  either  before  or  after  the  nominative;  as,  "  Do  I  not 
love?"  or,  "  Dt>  not  I  love'" 


52  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  29. 

§  29.  CONJUGATION  OF  THE  IRREGULAR  VERB 
"  TO  BE." 

214.  The  intransitive  irregular  verb  TO  BE,  is  in- 
flected through  all  its  moods  and  tenses,  as  follows: 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Present^  am.  Past,  was.     Past  participle,  been 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am.  1.  We  are. 

2.  Thou  art.  2.  You  are. 

3.  He  is.  3.  They  are. 

PRESENT-PERFECT  TENSE  (PERFECT). 
Sign,  have. 

1.  I  have  been.  1.  We  have  been. 

2.  Thou  hast  been.  2.  You  have  been. 

3.  He  has  been.  3.  They  have  been 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  I  was.  1.  We  were. 

2.  Thou  wast.  2.  You  were. 

3.  He  was.  3.  They  were. 

PAST-PERFECT  TENSE  (PLUPERFECT). 
Sign,  had. 

1.  I  had  been.  1.  We  had  been. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been.  2.  You  had  been. 

3.  He  had  been.  3.  They  had  been. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 
Signs,  shall,  tntt.— Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  be.  1.  We  shall  be. 

2.  Thou  shalt  be.  2.  You  shall  be. 
^.  He  shall  be.                             3.  They  shall  be 


29  ETYMOLOGY.  53 

FUTURE-PERFECT  TENSE. 
Signs,  shall  have,  mitt  have. — Inflect  with  each . 

1.  I  shall  have  been.  1.  We  shall  have  been. 

2.  Thou  shalt  have  been.  2.  You  shall  have  been.. 

3.  He  shall  have  been.  3.  They  shall  have  been, 

POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

Signs,  may,  can,  must. — Inflect  with  each. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  be.  1.  We  may  be. 

2.  Thou  mayst  be.  2.  You  may  be. 

3.  He  may  be.  3.  They  may  be 

PRESENT-PERFECT   TENSE  (PERFECT). 
Signs,  may  have,  can  have,-  or  must  have. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  may  have  been.  1.  We  may  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been.  2.  You  may  have  been. 

3.  He  may  have  been.  3.  They  may  have  been 

PAST   TENSE. 
Signs,  might,  could,  would,  should.— Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  might  be.  1.  We  might  be. 

2.  Thou  mightst  be.  2.  You  might  be. 

3.  He  might  be.  3.  They  might  be. 

PAST-PERFECT  TENSE  (PLUPERFECT). 
Signs,  might  have,  could  have,  would  have,  should  have.— Inflect  will.  - .  cr 

1.  I  might  have  been.  1.  We  might  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been.        2.  You  might  have  been. 

3.  He  might  have  been.  3.  They  might  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
PRESENT  TENSE  (Subjunctive  form). 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  be.  1.  #webe. 

2.  ./f  thoube.  2.  If  you  be. 

3.  //"he  be.  3.  If  they  be. 


34  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  29. 

PAST  TENSE  (Subjunctive  form).* 

1.  If  I  were.  1.  7jf  we  were. 

2.  TjT  them  wert  or  were.  2.  JJf  you  were. 

3.  ^T  he  were.  3.  7/1  they  were. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 
Singular.  Plural. 

2.  Be,  or  be  thou.  2.  Be,  or  be  ye  or  yoa. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 
PRESENT  TENSE.  PERFECT    TENSE. 

To  be.  To  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
PRESENT,  Being.       PAST,  Been.       PERFECT,  Having  been 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  VERB  "TO  BE." 

Parse  the  words  in  the  following  exercises. 

Am,  is,  art,  wast,  I  was,  they  were,  we  are,  hast  been, 
has  been,  we  have  been,  hadst  been,  he  had  been,  you 
have  been,  she  has  been,  we  were,  they  had  been. 

I  shall  be,  shalt  be,  we  will  be,  thou  wilt  be,  they  shall 
be,  it  will  be,  thou  wilt  have  been,  we  have  been,  they 
will  have  been,  we  shall  have  been,  am,  it  is. 

I  can  be,  mayst  be,  canst  be,  she  may  be,  you  may  be, 
ne  must  be,  they  should  be,  mightst  be,  he  would  be,  it- 
could  be,  wouldst  be,  you  could  be,  he  may  have  been. 

We  may  have  been,  mayst  have  been,  they  may  have 
been,  I  might  have  been,  you  should  have  been,  wouldst 
have  been;  (if)  thou  be,  we  be,  he  be,  thou  wert,  we 
were,  I  be. 

*The  indicative  foaspa  i*sll  the  tenses  is  the  same  as  the  indicative  with  a  con. 
junction  prefixed ;  thte,  ff  I  am,  If  I  have  been,  If  I  was,  If  I  had  beent  Ifjt 
shall  or  will  be,  If  I  shall  have  been. 


J'30,31.  ETYMOLOGY  55 

Be  thou,  be,  to  be,  being,  to  have  been,  if  I  be,  be  ye, 
been,  be,  having  been,  if  we  be,  if  they  be,  to  be. 

Snow  is  white ;  he  was  a  good  man ;  we  have  been 
younger ;  she  has  been  happy ;  it  had  been  late ;  we  are 
old ;  you  will  be  wise ;  it  will  be  time ;  if  they  be  thine ; 
be  cautious ;  be  heedful  youth ;  we  may  be  rich ;  they 
should  be  virtuous ;  thou  mightst  be  wiser ;  they  must 
have  been  excellent  scholars;  they  might  have  been 
powerful. 

§  30.     PROGRESSIVE  FORM. 

215.  The  Progressive  form  of  the  verb  (199, 2) 
is  inflected  by  prefixing  the  verb  to  be,  through  all 
its  moods  and  tenses,  to  the  present  participle ;  thus, 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present.     1.  I  am  writing.  2.  Thou  art  writing,  etc. 

Pres.-perf.  1.  I  have  been  writing.  2.  Thou  hast  been  writing,  etc. 
Past.          1.  I  was  writing.  2.  Thou  wast  writing,  etc. 

Past-perf.  1. 1  had  been  writing.     2.  Thou  hadst  been  writing,  etc. 
Future.       1. 1  shall  be  writing.       2.  Thou  shalt  be  writing,  etc. 
Fut'pcrf.   1. 1  shall  or  will  have  2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been 

been  writing.  writing,  etc. 

NOTE.    In  this  manner,  go  through  the  other  moods  and  tenses  as  in  $  29. 

§  31.     PASSIVE  VOICE. 

216.  The  Passive  voice  is  inflected  by  adding 
the   past  participle   to  the   auxiliary  verb  to  be 
(214),  through  all  its  moods  and  tenses;  thus, 

Pret.  Am  loved.      Past,  Was  loved.       Past  Part.  Loved. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am  loved.  1.  We  are  loved. 

2.  Thou  art  loved.  2.  You  are  loved. 

3.  He  is  loved.  3.  They  are  loved. 


56  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  31 

PRESENT-PERFECT  TENSE  (PERFECT). 
Sign,  have. 

1.  I  have  been  loved.  1.  We  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved.  2.  You  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  has  been  loved.  3.  They  have  been  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  I  was  loved.  1.  We  were  loved. 

2.  Thou  wast  loved.  2.  You  were  loved. 

3.  He  was  loved.  3.  They  were  loved. 

PAST-PERFECT  TENSE  (PLUPERFECT). 
Sign,  had. 

1.  I  had  been  loved.  1.  We  had  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved.  2.  You  had  been  loved. 

3.  He  had  been  loved,  3.  They  had  been  loved 

FUTURE  TENSE. 
Signs,  shatt,  will— Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  be  loved.  1.  We  shall  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  shalt  be  loved.  2.  You  shall  be  loved. 

3.  He  shall  be  loved.  3.  They  shall  be  loved. 

FUTURE-PERFECT  TENSE. 

Signs,  shall  have,  witt  have—In&ecl  with  each. 

1. 1  shall  have  been  loved.  1.  We  shall  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  shalt  have  been  loved.     2.  You  shall  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  shall  have  been  loved.         3.  They  shall  have  been  loved 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

Signs,  may^  can,  must— Inflect  with  each. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  maybe  loved.  1.  We  maybe  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  loved.  2.  You  maybe  loved, 

3.  He  may  be  loved.  3.  They  may  be  loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT  TENSE  (PERFECT). 
Signs,  may  have,  can  have,  must  have — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  may  have  been  loved.  1.  We  may  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved.  2.  You  may  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  may  have  been  loved,         3.  They  may  have  been  loved 


$31.  ETYMOLOGY.  57 

PAST  TENSE. 

Signs,  might,  could,  would,  should— Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  might  be  loved.  1.  We  might  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved.  2.  You  might  be  loved. 

3.  He  might  be  loved.  3.  They  might  be  loved. 

PAST-PERFECT  TENSE  (PLUPERFECT). 

Signs,  might  have,  could  have,  would  have,  should  have—Inftecl  with  each. 

1.  I  might  have  been  loved.  1.  We  might  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved.  2.  You  might  have  been  loved. 
8.  He  might  have  been  loved.       3.  They  might  have  been  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
PRESENT  TENSE  (Subjunctive  form). 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  be  loved.  1.  If  we  be  loved. 

2.  If  thou  be  loved.  2.  If  you  be  loved 

3.  TjThe  be  loved.  3.  If  they  be  loved 

PAST  TENSE  (Subjunctive  form).* 

l.Ifl  were  loved.  1.  If  we  were  loved. 

2.  If  thou  wert  or  were  loved,     2.  If  you  were  loved. 

3.  7f  he  were  loved.  3.  If  they  were  loved. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Be  thou  loved.  2.  Be  ye  or  you  loved. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
Present.     To  be  loved.  Perf.     To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.     Being  loved.  Past.     Loved. 

Perfect.    Having  been  loved. 

*The  indicative  form  in  all  the  tenses,  is  the  same  as  the  indicative  with  a  con. 
function  prefixed ;  thus,  "  If  lam  loved,  If  I  have  been  loved,  If  Twos  loved, 
V  T  had  been  loved,  Tf  I  shall  or  win  be  loved.  If  I  shall  have  been  lored." 


58  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  31 

EXERCISES  ON  THE    PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Parse  the  words  in  the  following  exercises  : 

They  are  loved;  we  were  loved;  thou  art  loved;  it 
is  loved;  she  was  loved;  he  has  been  loved;  you  have 
been  loved  ;  I  have  been  loved ;  thou  hadst  been  loved , 
we  shall  be  loved;  thou  wilt  be  loved;  they  will  be 
loved;  I  shall  have  been  loved;  you  will  have  been 
loved. 

He  can  be  loved ;  thou  mayst  be  loved ;  she  must  be 
loved;  they  might  be  loved;  ye  would  be  loved;  they 
should  be  loved;  I  could  be  loved;  thou  mayst  have 
been  loved;  it  may  have  been  loved;  you  might  have 
been  loved;  if  I  be  loved;*  thou  wert  loved;  we  be 
loved;  they  be  loved.  Be  thou  loved;  be  ye  loved, 
you  be  loved.  To  be  loved;  loved;  having  been  loved; 
to  have  been  loved;  being  loved. 

Promiscuous  Exercises  on  Verbs,  and  Cases  of  Nouns 

and  Pronouns. — Parse  each  word. 
Tie  John's  shoes ;  this  is  Jane's  bonnet ;  ask  mamma ; 
he  has  learned  his  lesson ;  she  invited  him ;  your  father 
may  commend  you;  he  was  baptized;  the  minister  bap- 
tized him ;  we  should  have  delivered  our  message ;  papa 
will  reprove  us ;  divide  the  apples ;  the  captain  had  com- 
manded his  soldiers  to  pursue  the  enemy;  Eliza  divert- 
ed her  brother;  a  hunter  killed  a  hare;  were  I  loved; 
were  we  good,  we  should  be  happy;  James  did  write; 
they  are  reading ;  I  have  been  running ;  I  did  run ;  they 
do  come;  he  might  be  doing  something;  they  must  have 
been  travelling. 

*A  conjunction  is  frequentlv  to  be  understood  here. 


§ 


ETYMOLOGY 


59 


§  32.  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 
217.  An  IRREGULAR  verb  is  one   that  does  not 
form  both  its  past  tense  in  the  indicative  active,  and 
its  past  participle  by  adding  ed  to  the  present  ;*as, 
Am,  was,  been. 

218.  The  following  list  comprises  nearly  all  the  irregular  verbs 
in  the  language.    Those  conjugated  regularly,  as  well  as  irregu- 
larly, are  marked  with  an  R.    Those   in  italics  are  obsolete,  or 
obsolescent,  and  now  but  little  used : — 
Present.  Past. 


Abide 

Am 

Arise 

Awake 

Bake 


abode 
was 
arose 

awoke,  R. 
baked 


Bear,  to  bring  forth    bore,  bare 

Bear,  to  carry  bore,  bare 

Beat  beat 

Begin  began 

Bend  bent,  R. 

Bereave  bereft,  R. 

Beseech  besought 

Bid  bid,  bade 

Bind,  un-  bound 

Bite      ^  bit 

Bleed  hied 

Blow  blew 

Break.  broke,  brake 

Breed  bred 

Bring  brought 

Build,  ce-  bulfc,  R 

Burn  burnt,  R 

Burst  burst 

Buy  bought 

Cast  cast 

©atch  caught,  R. 

Chide  chid 

Choosf  chose 


Past  participle. 

abode 

been 

arisen 

awaked 

baked,  bakcn 

born 

borne 

beaten,  beat 

begun 

bent,  R. 

bereft,  R. 

besought 

bidden,  bid 

bound 

bitten,  bit 

bled 

blown 

broken,  broke 

bred 

brought 

built,  R. 

burnt,  R. 

burst 

bought 

cast 

caught,  R. 

chidden,  tliid 

chosen 


60 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


§32 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  participle. 

Cleave,  to  split 

cleft,  clave 

cleft,  R.,  cloven 

Cleave,  to  adhere 

cleaved,  clavs 

cleared 

Cling 

clung 

clung 

Clothe 

clad,  R. 

clad,  R 

Come,  be- 

came 

come 

Cost 

cost 

cost 

Creep 

crept 

crept 

Crow 

crew,  R. 

crowed 

Cut 

cut 

cut 

Dare,  to  venture 

durst 

dared 

Dare.  to  challenge  is  R.  dared 

dared 

Deal' 

dealt 

dealt,  R. 

Dig 

dug,  R. 

dug,  R. 

Do,  mis-  tm- 

did 

done 

Draw 

drew 

drawn 

Dream 

dreamt,  R. 

dreamt,  R. 

Drink 

drank 

drank,  drunL 

Drive 

drove 

driven 

Dwell 

dwelt,  R. 

dwelt,  R. 

Eat 

ate,  eat 

eaten 

Fall,  be- 

fell 

fallen 

Feed 

fed 

fed 

Feel 

felt 

felt 

Fight 

fought 

fought 

Find 

found 

found 

Flee 

fled 

fled 

Fling 

flung 

flung 

Fly 

flew 

flown 

Forbear 

forbore 

forborne 

Forget 

forgot 

forgotten,  forgot 

Forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

Freeze 

froze 

4?       frozen 

Get,  be-  for- 

got,  gat 

gotten,  got 

Gild 

gilt,  R. 

gilt,  R. 

Gird,  be-  en- 

girt,  R. 

girt,  R. 

Give,  for-  mi*- 

gave 

given 

Go,  undt.r- 

went 

gone 

Grave,  en-  H. 

graved 

graven,  graved 

§32. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Present, 

Past. 

Past  participle. 

Grind 

ground 

ground 

Grow 

grew 

grown 

Hang 

hung 

hung* 

Have 

had 

had 

Hear 

heard 

heard 

Heave 

hove,  R. 

hoven,  R. 

Hew 

hewed 

hewn,  R. 

Hide 

hid 

hidden,  hid 

Hit 

hit 

hit 

Hold,  be-  with- 

held 

held,  holden 

Hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

Keep 

kept 

kept 

Kneel 

knelt  R. 

knelt,  R. 

Knit 

knit  R. 

knit,  knittec- 

Know 

knew 

known 

Lade,  to  load] 

laded 

laden 

Lay 

laid 

laid 

Lead,  mw- 

led 

led 

Leave 

left 

left 

Lend 

lent 

lent 

Let 

let 

let 

Lie,  to  reclint 

lay 

lain,  lien 

Light 

lighted,  lit 

lighted,  lit 

Lose 

lost 

lost 

Make 

made 

made 

Mean 

meant 

meant 

Meet 

met 

met 

Mow 

mowed 

mown,  R, 

Pay,  re- 

paid 

paid 

Pen,  to  enclose 

pent,  R. 

pent,  R 

Put 

put 

put 

Quit 

quit,  R. 

quit,  R. 

Read 

read} 

readj 

Rend 

rent 

rent 

*Hdng,  to  take  away  life  by  hanging,    is  regular ;  as,  "  The  robber 
hanged^  but  the  gown  was  hung  up.n 

\}j*fa.  to  dip,  is  regular.  tPronounced  r#l 

6 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


§32 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  participle. 

Rid 

rid 

rid 

Ride, 

rode,  rid 

ridden,  rid 

Ring 

rang,  rung 

rung 

Rise,  a- 

rose 

risen 

Rive 

rived 

riven,  R. 

Rot 

rotted 

rotten,  R, 

Run 

ran,  run 

run 

Saw 

sawed 

sawn,  R. 

Say 

said 

said 

See 

saw 

seen 

Seek 

sought 

sought 

Seethe 

seethed,  sod 

seethed,  sodden 

Sell 

sold 

sold 

Send 

sent 

sent 

Set,  be* 

set 

set 

Shake 

shook 

shaken 

Shape,  IWM- 

shaped 

•shapen,  R, 

Shave 

"*"  shaved 

shaven,  R. 

Shear 

•sheared 

shorn,  R. 

Shed 

shed 

shed 

Shine 

shone,  R. 

shone,  R, 

Shoe 

shod 

shod 

Shoot 

shot 

shot 

Show 

showed 

shown,  R. 

Shrink 

shrunk,  shrank 

shrunk 

Shred 

shred 

shred  ' 

Shut 

shut 

shut 

Sing 

sang,  sung 

sung 

Sink 

sunk,  sank 

sunk 

Sit 

sat 

sat 

Slay 

slew 

slain 

Sleep 

slept 

slept 

Slide 

slid 

slidden,  slid 

Sling 

slung,  slang 

slung 

Slink 

slunk 

slunk 

Slit 

slit 

slit  or  slittH 

Smita 

srnote 

smitten 

Sow,  to  scatter 

sowed 

sown,  R. 

ETYMOLOGY. 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  participle. 

Speak,  fee-' 

spoke,  spake 

spoken 

Speed 

sped 

sped 

Spell 

spelt,  R. 

spelt,  R 

Spend,  mis- 

spent 

spent 

Spill 

spilt,  R. 

spilt,  R 

Spin 

spun,  span 

spun 

Spit,  be- 

spit,  spat 

spit 

Split 

split 

split 

Spread,  be- 

spread 

spread 

Spring 

sprang,  sprung 

sprung 

Stand,  with-  etc. 

stood 

stood 

Steal 

stole 

stolen 

Stick 

stuck 

stuck 

Sting 

stung 

stung 

Stride,  be- 

strode,  strid 

stridden,  strid 

Strike 

struck 

struck,  stricken 

String 

strung 

strung 

Strive 

strove 

striven 

Strew,*  be- 

strewed 

strewed 

Strow,  fee- 

strewed 

strowed,  strown 

Swear 

swore,  sware 

sworn  . 

Sweat 

sweat,  R. 

sweat,  R. 

Sweep 

swept 

swept 

Swell 

swelled 

swollen,  R. 

Swim 

swam  or  swum 

swum 

Swing 

swang 

swung 

Take,  be-  mis-  re- 

took 

taken 

Teach 

taught 

taught 

Tear 

tore  ,  tare 

torn 

Tell 

told 

told 

Think,  fee- 

thought 

thought 

Thrive 

thrived,  throve 

thriven,  R. 

Throw 

threw 

thrown 

Thrust 

thrust 

thrust 

Tread 

trod 

trodden,  trod 

*  Strew  and  shew  are  now  giving  way  to  stiow  anrl  show,  as  they  are  pro- 
oounced. 


64  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  32 

Present.  Past.  Past  participle. 

Wax  waxed  waxen,  R". 

Wear  wore  worn 

Weave  wove  woven 

Weep  wept  wept 

Wet  wet,  R.  wet,  R. 

Whet  whet,  R  whet,  R. 

Win  won  won 

Wind  wound,  R.  wound 

Work  wrought,  R.  wrought,  worked 

Wring  wrung,  R.  wrung 

Write  wrote  written 

DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

219.  DEFECTIVE  verbs  are  those  in  which  some 
of  the  parts  are  wanting.  They  are  irregular,  ana 
chiefly  auxiliary  :  these  are, 

Present.  Past.  Present  Past. 

Can  could  Shall  should 

May  might  Will  would 

Must  Wis  wist 

Ought  Wit  or)  wot 

Quoth  quoth  Wot     ) 

Beware,  used  only  in  the  imperative  and  infinitive. 

220.  Ought,  originally  the  past  tense  of  owe,  is  now  nsed  to 
signify  present  duty,  and  must,  to  denote  present  obligation  or 
necessity.    When  they  refer  to  past  time,  a  change  is  made  in  the 
infinitive  with  which  they  are  joined  5  thus,   Present,   "  These 
things  ye  ought  to  do/   Past,  "  These  things  ye  ought  to  have 
done." 

221.  Will,  as  an  auxiliary,  has  wilt,  and  shall  has  shalt,  in  the 
second  person  singular.     They  are  both  without  inflection  in  the 
third  person  singular.      Will,  as  a  principal  verh,  is  regular, 

222.  Wis,  wist,  which  signifies  to  know,  to  imagine,  is  now 
obsolete.    Wit,  of  the  same  meaning  and  origin,  is  now  used  only 
in  the  infinitive,  in  the  phrase  ."  to  wit,"  that  is,  namely 


§  33.  ETYMOLOGY.  65 

IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

223.  IMPERSONAL  verbs  are  those  which  assert 
the  existence  of  some  action  or  state,  but  refer  it 
to  no  particular  subject.     They  are  always  in  the 
third  person  singular,  and  in  English  are  preceded 
by  the  pronoun  it;  as,  "It  rains;"  "It  hails;"  "It 
behooves,"  &c. 

224.  To  this  class  of  words  belong  the  expressions,  methinks, 
methought ;  meseems,  mescemed ;  sometimes  used  for  "/£  seems 
to  me,"  "  It  appears  to  me,"  etc. 

225.  The  pronoun  it  preceding  the  impersonal  verb  as  its  sub- 
ject, is  the  substitute  of  some  unknown  and  general,  or  well- 
known  cause,  the  action  of  which  is  expressed  by  the  verb,  but 
which  can  not,  or  need  not,  itself  be  named. 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 
Name  the  Past  tense  and  Past  participle  of — Take, 
drive,  creep,  begin,  abide,  buy,  bring,  arise,  catch,  be- 
reave, am,  burst,  draw,  drink,  fly,  flee,  fall,  get,  give, 
go,  feel,  forsake,  grow,  have,  hear,  hide,  keep,  know, 
lose,  pay,  ride,  ring,  shake,  run,  seek,  sell,  see,  sit,  slay, 
slide,  smite,  speak,  stand,  tell,  win,  write,  weave,  etc. 

§  33.    ADVERBS. 

226.  An  ADVERB  is  a  word  joined  to  a  verb,  an 
adjective,  or  another  adverb,  to  modify  it,  or  to  de- 
note some  circumstance  respecting  it;  as,  "Ann 
speaks  distinctly ;  she  is  remarkably  diligent,  and 
reads  very  correctly." 

227.  On  the  same  principle  that  an  adverb  modifies  another 
adverb,  it  sometimes  also  modifies  an  adjunct,  a  phrase,  or  a  sen- 
tence-, as,  "  I  met  your  brother  FAR  from  home;"  "  He  will  be 
here  SOON  after  mid-day  ;"  "We  shall  go  IMMEDIATELY  after  the 
mail  arrives." 

228.  The  adverbs  chiefly,  particularly,  especially,  entirely,  al- 
together, solely,  only,  merely,  partly,  also,  likewise,  too,  etc.  some- 
times modify  nouns  and  pronouns  •,  as,  "7  only  am  escaped  •,'• 
l<  The  women  also  were  there." 

6* 


66  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  34 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  ADVERBS. 

229.  Adverbs   have  been   divided  into  various 
classes,  according  to  their  signification.     The  chief 
of  these  are  the  following : 

1.  Adverbs  of  Manner  ;  as,  justly,  bravely,  softly,  &c. 

2.  Of  Place  ;  as,  here,  there,  where ;  hither,  thence,  &c, 

3.  Of  Time ;  as,  now,  then,  when,  soon,  often,  never,  &c. 

4.  Of  Direction ;  as,  upward,  downward,  forward,  &c. 

5.  Of  Affirmation ;  as,  yes,  verily,  certainly,  &c. 

6.  Of  Negation  ;  as,  nay,  no,  not,  nowise,  &c. 

7.  Of  Uncertainty ;  as,  perhaps,  peradventure,  &c. 

8.  Of  Interrogation ;  as,  how  ?  why  ?  when  ?  where  ?  &c. 

9.  Of  Comparison ;  as,  more,  most,  less,  as,  so,  thus,  &c. 
10   Of  Quantity  ;  as,  much,  some,  little,  enough,  &c. 

11.  Of  Order ;  as,  first,  secondly,  thirdly,  next,  &c. 

12.  Conjunctive  adverbs  which  stand  for  two  adjuncts, 
one  of  which  contains  a  relative  pronoun,  and  the 
other  its  antecedent ;   as,  when  =  at  the  time  at 
which ;  haw  =  the  manner  in  which,  &c.     They 
are  how,  when,  where,  while,  whither,  whence. 

230.  §  34.     OBSERVATIONS  ON  ADVERBS. 

1 .  The  chief  use  of  adverbs  is  to  shorten  discourse,  by  expres^ 
sing  in  one  word  what  would  otherwise  require  two  or  more-,  as, 
here,  for  u  in  this  place-,"  nobly,  for  "  in  a  noble  manner,"  etc. 

Phrases  for  which  an  adverb  is  an  equivalent  are  called  adjuncts. 

2.  Adverbs  of  quality,  and  a  few  others,  admit  of  comparison 
like  adjectives-,  as,  soon,  sooner,  soonest;  nobly,  more  nobly,  most 
nobly.     A    few  are   compared  irregularly-,  as,  well,  better,  best, 
badly,  or  ill,  worse,  worst. 

3.  Some  words  become  adverbs  by  prefixing  a,  which  signifies 
it,  or  on;  as,  abed,  ashore,  afloat,  aground,  apart,  etc. 

4.  In   comparisons,  the   antecedents    as   and    so   are   usually 
reckoned  adverbs,   because  they  modify  an  adjective  or  another 


§  34.  ETYMOLOGY.  07 

adverb-,  the  corresponding  as  and  so  are  adverbs  also,  as  they 
may  be  resolved  into  an  adjunct-,  thus,  u  It  is  as  high  AS  Hea- 
ven ;"  i.  e.  high  in  the  degree  IN  WHICH  Heaven  is  high. 

5.  The  compounds  of  here,  there,  ichere;  a'nd  hither,  thither, 
whither,  are   all  adverbs.     Therefore  and  wherefortt  sometimes 
tailed   conjunctions,  are  properly  adverbs  also;    therefore  being 
equivalent  to  for  this  reason,    and  wherefore   equivalent  to  for 
which  reason;  as  an  interrogative  =for  what  reason  ? 

6.  Many  words  are  used  sometimes  as  adverbs,  and  sometimes 
as  other  parts  of  speech ;  thus, 

Much  is  used,   1.  As  an  adverb;    as,  It  is  much  better  to  give 

than  to  receive. 
2.  As  an  adjective-,  as.  In  much  wisdom  is  much 

grief. 
• 3.  As  a  noun;  as,  where  much  is  given,  much  is 

required. 
Yesterday  is  used,  1.  As  an  adverb;  as,  He  came  yesterday. 

2,  As  a  noun;  as,  Yesterday  is  past. 

Before  is  used,  1.  As  an  adverb;   as,    He  came  before  the  dooi 

was  opened. 
' 2.  As  a  preposition;  as,  He  stood  before  the  dooi. 

7.  Circumstances  of  time,  place,  manner,  etc.  are  often  ex- 
pressed by  two  or  more  words  constituting  an  adverbial  plirase  ; 
as,  in  short,  in  fine,  in  general,  at  most,  at  least,  at  length,  not 
at  all,  by  no  means,  in  vain,  in  order,  long  ago,  by  and  bye,  to 
and  fro,  etc.,  which,  taken  together,  may  be  parsed  as  adverbs,  or 
by  supplying  the  ellipsis;  thus,  in  a  short  space;  in  a  general 
ivay,  etc. 

8.  There,  commonly  used  as  an  adverb  of  place,  is  often  used 
ns  an  introductory  expletive  to  the  verbs  to  be,  to  come,  to  appear, 
and  some  others,  when  the  subject,  in  declaratory  sentences,  fol- 
lows the  verb;  as,  "  There  is  no  doubt  of  the  fact;"  u  There- 
came  to  the  beach  a  poor  exile  of  Erin-,"  "  There  appears  tc  be 
a  mistake  somewhere."  Sometimes,  when  the  subject  goes  be- 
fore, U  is  placed  between  the  subject  and  the  v.erb;  as,  u  A  mis- 
take there  is."  In  all  such  cases,  there  is  a  mere  expletive.  It 
adds  nothing  to  the  sense,  but  still  it  enables  to  vary  the  form  of 
expression,  and  to  soften  the  abruptness  which  would  otherwise 


68  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  35 

exist.    This  will  appear  by  omitting  it  in  any  of  the  above  ex- 
amples. 

231.  PARSING. — An  abverb  is  parsed  by  stating  what  part  of 
speech — the  class  to  which  it  belongs — the  word  which  it  modi- 
fies— its  derivation  and  comparison,  if  derived  and  compared  • 
thus,  "  He  speaks  fluently?  Fluently r,  an  adverb  of  manner,  and 
modifies  "  speaks  ;"  derived  from  fluent,  and  compared  more  flu- 
ently, most  fluently. 

EXERCISES    ON    ADVERBS,    IRREGULAR    VERBS,  etc. 
Parse  the  words  in  the  following  exercises. 

Peter  wept  bitterly.  He  is  here  now.  She  went 
away  yesterday.  They  came  to-day.  They  will  per- 
haps buy  some  to-morrow.  Ye  shall  know  hereafter. 
She  sung  sweetly.  Cats  soon  learn  to  catch  mice. 
Mary  rose  up  hastily.  They  that  have  enough  may 
sleep  soundly.  Cain  wickedly  slew  his  brother.  I  saw 
mm  long  ago.  He  is  a  very  good  man.  Sooner  or  later 
all  must  die.  You  read  too  little.  They  talk  too  much. 
James  acted  wisely.  How  many  lines  can  you  repeat] 
You  ran  hastily.  He  speaks  fluently.  Then  were  they 
glad.  He  fell  fast  asleep.  She  should  not  hold  her  head 
down.  The  ship  was  driven  ashore.  No,  indeed.  They 
are  all  alike.  Let  him  that  is  athirst  drink  freely.  The 
oftener  you  read  with  attention,  the  more  you  will  im- 
prove. 

§  35.     PREPOSITIONS. 

232.  A  PREPOSITION  is  a  word  which  shows  the 
relation  between  a  noun  or  pronoun  following  it, 
and  some  other  word  in  the  sentence  ;  as,  Before 
honor  is  humility.  The  love  of  money  is  the  root 
of  all  evil.  Come  to  me. 

238.  NOTE.  Of  the  words  related,  that  before  the  preposition 
is  called  the  antecedent  term,  and  that  after  it,  the  subsequent  tp.im 


§  35 


ETYMOLOGY. 


69 


234.  Words  of  this  class  are  called  prepositions,  because  they  aro 
usually  placed  before  the  nouns  or  pronouns  to  which  they  refer. 
The  principal,  are  contained  in  the  following 

235.  LIST  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 

To  be  got  accurately  by  heart. 


About 

Below 

From 

Through 

Above 

Beneath 

In 

Throughout 

Across 

Beside 

Into 

Till,  until 

After 

Besides 

Notwithstanding  To 

Against 

Between 

Of 

Touching 

Along 

Betwixt 

Off 

Toward   } 

Amid     7 

Beyond 

On 

Towards  > 

Amidst  5 

But 

Over 

Under 

Among     ) 

By 

Out  of 

Underneath 

Amongst  $ 

Concerning 

Past 

Unto 

Around 

Down 

Regarding 

Up 

At 

During 

Respecting 

Upon 

Athwart 

Except 

Round 

With 

Before 

Excepting 

Save 

Within 

Behind 

For 

Since 

Without 

236.        OBSERVATIONS  ON  PREPOSITIONS. 

1.  Every  preposition  requires  an  objective  case  after  it.     Wheh 
a  preposition  has  not  a  subsequent  term  or  object,  it  becomes  an 
adverb;  as,  He  rides  about.     But  in  such  phrases  as,  cast  up,  hold 
out,  fall  on,  the  words  up,   out,  on,  must  be  considered  each  as  a 
part  of  the  verb,  rather  than  as  a  preposition  or  an  adverb. 

2.  Certain  words  are  used  sometimes  as  prepositions,  and  some- 
times as  adverbs-,  as,  till,  until,  after,  before,  etc. 

3.  Such  words  as  near,  nigh,  like,  etc.,  sometimes  ranked  as 
prepositions,  are  more  properly  adjectives  or  adverbs,  and  the  ob- 
jective case  after  them  governed  by  to  understood;  as,  Near  (te) 
the  house, 

4.  Inseparable  prepositions  are  certain  particles  never  found  by 


70  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  36. 

themselves,  but  always  in  composition  with  another  word.    Those 
purely  English  are  a,  be,  fore,  mis,  un. 

237.  PARSING.  A  preposition  is  parsed  by  stating  what  part  of 
speech,   and  between  what  words  it  shows  the  relation-,  thus, 
ki  The  waters  of  Jordan."     Of  is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the 
relation  between  Jordan  the  antecedent,  and  waters  the  subse- 
quent term. 

EXERCISES  CONTAINING  PREPOSITIONS. 

Parse  the  words  in  the  following  exercises. 

He  went  to  town.  His  father  resides  in  the  country. 
He  gave  part  of  his  dinner  to  a  poor  man  in  the  street. 
They  divided  the  inheritance  among  them.  All  rivers 
flow  into  the  ocean.  He  was  travelling  towards  Rome 
when  they  met  him  at  Milan,  without  a  single  atten- 
dant. The  coach  was  upset  between  Bristol  and  Lon- 
don on  Wednesday  last. 

§  36.     INTERJECTIONS. 

238.  An  INTERJECTION  is  a  word  used  in  excla- 
mations to  express  an  emotion  of  the  mind ;  as, 
"  Oh  !  what  a  sight  is  here  !"     "  Well  done  /" 

NOTE.  An  interjection  has  no  grammatical  connection  with 
the  other  words  in  a  sentence. 

A  LIST  OF  INTERJECTIONS. 

Adieu  !  ah  !  alas  !  alack  !  away  !  aha  !  begone  ! 
hark!  ho!  ha!  he!  hail!  halloo!  hum!  hush!  huzza! 
hist  !  hey-dey  !  lo  !  0!  Oh  !  0  strange  !  0  brave! 
pshaw!  see!  well-a-day!  &c. 

239.  OBSERVATIONS  ON  INTERJECTIONS. 

1.  Many  words  denominated  interjections,  are  in  fact  nouns  or 
verbs,  employed  in  the  rapidity  of  thought  and  expression  occa- 
sioned by  strong  emotion,  to  denote  what  would  otherwise  re- 
quire more  words  to  express,  as  Adieu!  for  "  I  commend  you  to 


§  37  ETYMOLOGY.  71 

God 5"  Strange!  for  <c  that  is  strange:11  Welcome!  for  u  you  are 
welcome  5"  and  hence  any  word  or  phrase  may  become  an  inter- 
jection, or  be  used  as  such,  when  it  is  expressed  witn  emotion, 
and  in  an  unconnected  manner-,  as,  What!  Ungrateful  creature! 
Shocking ! 

2.  O  is  used  to  express  wishing  or  exclamation,  and  should  be 
prefixed  only  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  in  a  direct  address-,  as,  u  O 
virtue!  How  amiable  thou  art."  Oh!  is  used  detached  from  the 
word,  with  a  point  of  exclamation  after  it.  It  implies  an  emotion 
of  pain,  sorrow,  or  surprise  j  as,  "  Oh!  what  a  sight  is  here." 

240.  PARSING. — An  interjection  is  parsed  by  stating  the  part 
of  speech,  why,  and  the  emotion   expressed-,  as,  uOh!  what  a 
sight  is  here!"     Oh! — an  interjection,  because  used  as  an  excla 
mation,  and  expresses  an  emotion  of  pain. 

§  37.     CONJUNCTIONS, 

241.  A  CONJUNCTION  is  a  word  which  connects 
words  or  sentences ;  as,  "  You  and  I  must  study ; 
but  he  may  go  and  play. 

242.  Conjunctions  are  divided  into  two  classes ; 
Copulative  and  Disjunctive. 

243.  Copulative  Conjunctions  connect  things  that 
are  to  be  considered  together.     They  are  both,  and, 
as,  because,  for,  if,  since,  that. 

244.  Disjunctive  Conjunctions   connect  things 
that  are  to  be  considered  separately.     The  princi- 
pal are  Either,  or,  neither,  nor,  than,  though,  al- 
though, yet,  but,  except,  whether,  lest,  unless,  not 
withstanding,  save,  provided,  whereas. 

245.  And  is  the  principal  copulative,  and  denotes  addition.     It 
das  frequently  both  as  a  related  antecedent  conjunction  in  the  pre- 
jeding  member.     The  other  copulatives  denote  condition,  sup- 
oosition,  etc. 

246.  Or  and  nor  are  the  principal  disjunctive  conjunctions,  and 
sometimes  have,  for  their  related  antecedent  conjunctions,  either 
and  neither  respectively.    The  other  disjunctives  denote  concession 
doubt,  opposition,  etc. 


72  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  38. 

247.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  list  above  that  the  same  woid 
varies  in  its  character  according  to  its  application:  e.  g.  both,  cither, 
neither,  are  sometimes  adjective  pronouns  and  sometimes  conjunc- 
tions ;  that  is  sometimes  an  adjective  pronoun,  sometimes  a  rela- 
tive pronoun   (§,  18,141obs.  2),   as  well  as  a  conjunction-, /or, 
except,  are  sometimes  prepositions-,  since  and  but  are  sometimes 
conjunctions,    sometimes  prepositions,  and  sometimes   adverbs-, 
thus,  "  since  (conj.)  we  must  part,  let  us  do  it  peaceably-,1'   "  1 
have   not  seen  him  since  (prep.)  that   time-,"  "  Our  friendship 
commenced  long  since"  (adv.)-,  u  He  is  poor,  but  honest"  (conj.); 
u  All  but  one"  (prep.);  "  He  has  but  just  enough"  (adv.). 

248.  PARSING.  A  conjunction  is  parsed  by  stating  the  part  ol 
speech,  its  class,  and  the  words  or  sentences  which  it  connects; 
as,  "  He  and  I  must  go,  but  you  may  stay.     And — a  copulative 
conjunction,  connecting  the  words  He  and  /;  but — a  disjunctive 
conjunction,  connecting  the  sentences.  u  He  and  I  must  go,"  and 
"  you  may  stay." 

§  38.     ETYMOLOGICAL  PARSING. 

249.  ETYMOLOGICAL  PARSING  consists  in  stating 
the  part  of  speech  to  which  each  word  belongs, 
with  its  accidents  or  grammatical  properties. 

250.  Accuracy  and  expertness  in  this  exercise  are  an  important 
acquisition,  and  can  not  be  fully  acquired  without  a  knowledge  of 
the  rules  of  syntax.    At  the  same  time,  in  order  to  study  the  rules 
of  syntax  with  advantage,  and  especially  to  be  able  readily  to 
correct  the  exercises  in  false  syntax,  under  each  rule,  considerable 
proficiency  in  parsing  is  necessary,     The  pupil  must  be  able  at 
once  to  distinguish  the  different  parts  of  speech  from  each  other, 
and  to  tell  the  different  cases,  .moods,  tenses,  etc.  in  which  a  word  is 
found,  and  to  change  it  readily  into  any  other  that  may  be  required. 

In  proceeding  to  parse  a  sentence,  it  is  necessary  for  the  pupil 
in  the  first  place  to  understand  it.  When  he  understands  a  sen- 
tence, and  also  the  definition  of  the  different  parts  of  speech  given 
in  the  grammar,  he  will  not  find  much  difficulty  in  ascertaining 
to  which  of  them  each  word  belongs-,  i.  e.  which  of  the  words  are 
"names  of  things."  or  nouns;  which  "express  the  quality  of 
things,"  or,  "affirm  any  thing  concerning  them.,"  that  is  to  say, 


§  38  ETYMOLOGY.  73 

which  words  are  adjectives,  and  which  are  verbs.  This  method 
will  exercise  the  discriminating  powers  of  the  pupil  better,  en- 
gage his  attention  much  more,  and  on  trial  be  found  much  more 
easy  and  certain,  than  that  of  consulting  his  dictionary  on  every 
occasion  5  a  plan  always  laborious,  often  unsatisfactory,  and  which, 
instead  of  leading  him  to  exercise  his  own  powers,  and  depend 
on  his  own  resources,  will  lead  him  to  habits  of  slavish  depend- 
ence on  the  authority  of  others. 

251.  The  following  General  principles  should  be  remembered 
and  steadily  kept  in  view  in  parsing  every  sentence,  viz : 

1.  Every  adjective  qualifies  or  limits  a  noun  or 
pronoun  expressed  or  understood. 

2.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb,  i.  e.  the  person 
or  thing  spoken  of,  is  always  in  the  nominative,  and 
is  said  to  be  the  "  nominative  to  the  verb." 

3.  Every  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  nominative 
case  (except  the  nominative  independent,  §  80,  and 
the  predicate-nominative,  §  61),  is  the  subject  of  a 
verb,  expressed  or  understood,  i.  e.  it  is  that  of 
which  the  verb  affirms. 

4.  Every  verb  in  the  indicative,  potential,  01 
subjunctive  mood,  has  a  nominative  or  subject  ex- 
pressed or  understood,  i.  e.  it  has  something  of 
which  it  affirms. 

5.  Every  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice,  and 
every  preposition,  governs  a  noun  or  pronoun  in 
the  objective  case ;  and  every  objective  case  is 
governed  by  a  transitive  active  verb,  or  preposition. 

NOTE. — Instead  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  the  object  of  a  transitive 
active  verb  is  sometime*  an  infinitive  mood  or  substantive  clause. 
(386.) 

6.  Every  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood  is  governed 
by  a  verb,  adjective,  or  noun ;  and  sometimes  it 
stands  after  the  conjunction  than  or  as.    See  6  67. 

7 


74  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  39 

252.     j  39.     SPECIMENS  OF  PARSING.* 

"  Truth  and  candor  possess  a  powerful  charm." 

Previous  to  parsing  this  sentence,  it  may  be  anatyzed  to  the 
young  pupil  by  such  questions  as  the  following,  viz:  What  is 
spoken  of  in  this  sentence?  Truth  and  candor  What  is  said  of 
them?  They  possess  some  thing.  What  do  they  possess?  A 
charm.  What  soil  of  charm  do  they  possess?  A  powerful 
charm.  The  sentence  being  understood, may  be  parsed  briefly  thus : 
**  Truth,"  A  noun,  neuter,  in  the  nominative  singular,  and, 

with  candor,  the  subject  of  possess. 
"  JLnd,"  A   copulative  Conjunction,    connecting  "  truth"  with 

"  candor." 
"  Candor"  A  noun,  neuter,    in  the  nominative  singular,  and, 

with  truth,  the  subject  of  possess. 
"  Possess"  A  verb  transitive,  in  the  present  indicative  active, 

third  person  plural,  and  affirms  of  truth  and  candor. 
"•tf,"  The  indefinite  article,  belongs  to  charm,  and  shews  it  is 

used  indefinitely. 
"Powerful,"  an  adjective,  positive  degree,  qualifying  "charm," 

compared  by  more  and  most  ;  as,  more,  powerful,  most 

powerful. 
lv  Charm"  a  noun,  neuter,  in  the  objective  singular,  the  object  of 

possess. 

NOTE.— It  will  also  be  a  profitable  exercise  to  require  a  reason  for  every  thing 
stated  in  parsing  a  word,  as  for  example,  Why  do  you  say  that  "Truth"  is  a  noun  ? 
is  neuter?  singular?  the  nominative?  To  which  questions  it  may  be  answered, 
Because  it  is  the  name  of  a  thing — because  it  is  without  sex — denotes  but  one, 
and  (together  with  candor)  is  the  subject  or  nominative  of  the  verb  "  possess;"  or 
is  the  thing  spoken  of  (See  note  p.  17).  This  exercise  should  be  continued  tili  the 
pupil  is  able  to  answer  all  such  questions  on  any  of  the  parts  of  speech  promptly 
and  intelligently. 

*In  parsing,  the  pupil  should  be  required  to  state  every  thing  belonging  to  the 
etymology  of  each  word  in  as  few  words  as  possible,  and  without  waiting  to 
have  every  thing  drawn  from  him  by  questions  from  his  teacher;  this  will  savo 
much  time  and  unnecessary  labor.  It  will  also  contribute  much  to  order  and 
precision,  to  have  every  tiling  respecting  each  part  of  speech  expressed  always 
in  the  same  order  and  in  the  same  language.  These  specimens  are  given  as  an 
example. 


§  39  ETYMOLOGY.  75 

All  the  parts  of  speech  are  contained  in  the  fol- 
lowing stanza. 

O  how  stupendous  was  the  power 

That  raised  me  with  a  word  ; 
And  every  day,  and  every  hour, 
I  lean  upon  the  Lord. 

O. Interjection,  expressing  admiration. 

how . An  adverb  of  manner,  modifying  stupendous.     » 

stupendous,  An  adjective,  positive  degree,  qualifying  power,  com- 
pared by  more  and  most. 

was A  verb  intransitive,  irregular,  am,  was,  been,  in  the 

past  indicative  active,  and  affirms  of  power. 

the .  The  definite  article  belonging  to  power,  shewing  it  to 

be  limited. 

power A  noun,  neuter,  in  the  nominative  singular,  subject 

of  was. 

that  A  relative  pronoun  used  for  which,  in  nominative  sin- 
gular, subject  of  raised,  and  relates  to  power  its  an- 
tecedent. 

raised A  verb  transitive,  in  the  past  indicative  active,  third 

pers.  singular,  affirms  of  that  its  subject,  for  power. 

me The  first  personal  pronoun  masculine  or  feminine  in 

the  objective  singular,  object  of  raised. 

with A  preposition,  shewing  the  relation  between  word  its 

subsequent,  and  raised  its  antecedent  term. 

a The  indefinite  article,  belongs  to  word,  and  shews  it  is 

not  limited. 

word  .    ...  A  noun,  neuter,  in  the  obj.  singular,  object  of  with. 

and A  copulative  conjunction,  connecting  the  following 

with  the  preceding  sentence. 

every A  distributive  adjective  pronoun,  qualifying  day. 

day  ......  A  noun,  neuter,  in  the  objective  singular,  restrictive 

(§  50  Sub  -  Rule] . 

and A  copulative  conjunction,  connecting  day  and  hour. 

every  .....  A  distributive  adjective  pronoun,  qualifying  hour. 

hour A  noun,  neuter,  in  the  objective  singular,  same  as  rfay 


76  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  40. 

/ The  first  personal  pronoun,  masculine  or  feminine, 

nominative  singular,  subject  of  lean. 
lean A  verb  intransitive,  in  the  present  indicative  active 

first  person  singular,  and  affirms  of  /. 
upon  ....   A  preposition,  showing  the  relation  between  Lord^  it* 

subsequent,  and  lean,  its  antecedent  term. 
the The  definite  article,  belonging  to  Xorrf,  and  shewing 

it  to  be  limited. 
Lord A  noun,  masculine,  in  the  objective  singular,  object 

of  upon. 

253.     §  40.     EXERCISES  IN  PARSING.* 

RULE  1.  Two  or  more  adjectives  in  succession,  either  with  or 
without  a  conjunction,  qualify  the  same  word;  as, 

A  wise  and  faithful  servant  will  always  study  his 
master's  interest.  A  dismal,  dense,  and  portentous 
cloud  overhangs  the  city.  A  steady,  sweet,  and  cheerful 
temper  affords  great  delight  to  its  possessor.  He  has 
bought  a  fine  new  coat.  A  sober  and  virtuous  course 
of  conduct  generally  leads  to  happiness.  Virtuous 
youth  brings  forth  accomplished  and  flourishing  man- 
hood. She  had  a  regular  and  polite  education. 

RULE  2.  When  an  adjective  precedes  two  nouns,  it  generally 
qualifies  them  both;  as, 

They  waited  for  &jit  time  and  place.  I  am  delighted 
with  the  sight  of  green  woods  and  fields.  He  displayed 
great  prudence  and  moderation.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
wisdom  and  moderation.  Guard  against  rash  temper 
and  conduct.  They  shewed  sincere  respect  and  esteem 
for  their  friends. 

RtJLB  3.  When  an  adjective  comes  after  the  intransitive  verb 
TO  BE,  TO  BECOME,  and  some  others,  it  qualifies  the  nominative 
of  that  verb;  as, 

John  is  wise.  They  were  temperate.  The  sky  is 
very  clear.  These  rivers  are  deep  and  rapid.  The 

*The  rules  in  this  section  are  not  intended  to  be  committed  to  memory,  but  to 
be  used  as  directions  to  the  beginner  in  parsing  the  exercises  under  them 


§  40.  ETYMOLOGY.  ?7 

apples  will  soon  be  ripe.  We  have  •  been  attentive  to 
our  lessons.  These  mountains  are  very  high.  The 
sea  is  tempestuous.  Our  friends  should  be  dear  to  us, 
His  behavior  was  entirely  inconsistent.  The  Supreme 
being  is  wise  and  good.  Their  pictures  and  books  are 
valuable.  John's  schemes  were  absurd. 

RULE  4.  Whatever  words  the  verb  TO  BE  serves  to  unite,  refer- 
ring to  the  same  thing ^  must  be  of  the  same  case  (§  61) ;  as, 

Alexander  is  a  student.  Mary  is  a  beautiful  girl. 
Hope  is  the  balm  of  life.  Content  is  a  great  blessing, 
envy  a  great  curse.  Knowledge  is  power.  His  meat 
was  locusts  and  wild  honey.  He  was  the  life  of  the 
company.  She  will  be  the  delight  of  her  friends.  Mil- 
ton is  the  prince  of  English  poets.  Shakspeare  was 
a  man  of  unbounded  genius.  Johnson  was  a  powerful 
writer.  Contentment  is  great  gain.  He  might  be  a 
most  happy  man.  I  understood  it  to  be  him.  I  sup- 
posed it  to  have  been  them.  They  imagined  it  to  be  me. 

Note.  It  is  necessary  to  the  application  of  this  rule,  that  the  words  connected 
refer  to  the  same  thing.  This  connection  is  often  made  by  other  words  than  the 
verb  to  be.  (See  61,  Rem.  I.) 

RULE  5.  Nouns  and  pronouns  put  one  after  another,  and  de- 
noting the  same  object,  are  said  to  be  in  APPOSITION,  and  always 
agree  in  case;  as, 

Alexander  the  coppersmith  was  not  a  friend  to  the 
Apostle  Paul.  Hope,  the  balm  of  life,  is  our  greatest 
friend.  Thomson,  the  author  of  the  Seasons,  is  a 
delightful  poet.  Temperance,  the  best  preserver  of 
health,  should  be  the  study  of  all  men.  He  greatly 
displeased  his  friend  Cato.  We  received  orders  from 
General  Washington,  commander-in- chief.  Religion 
and  virtue,  our  best  support,  and  highest  honor,  confer 
on  the  mind  principles  of  noble  independence. 

Note.  In  parsing  such  sentences  as  the  preceding,  a  relative  and  a  verb  may  bo 
inserted  between  the  words  in  apposition :  as,  Hope  which  is  the  balm,  &c.  My- 
self, thyself,  himself,  &c.,  oftea  stand  at  a  considerable  distance,  from  the  words 
with  which  they  agree ;  as, 

Thomas  despatched  the  letter  himself.  They  ga- 
thered the  flowers  in  the  garden  themselves.  Ann  saw 
the  transaction  herself,  and  could  not  be  mistaken. 

7* 


78  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  40 

RULE  6.  Myself,  thyself,  himself,  etc.,  often  form  the  objective* 
after  transitive  verbs,  of  which  the  words  they  represent  are  tht 
subjects  or  nominatives.  They  are  t  in  such  cases,  called  Reflexive 
pronouns;  as, 

/  hurt  myself.  He  wronged  himself  to  oblige  us. 
They  will  support  themselves  by  their  industry.  She 
endeavored  to  shew  herself  off  to  advantage.  We  must 
confine  ourselves  more  to  our  studies.  They  hurt 
themselves  by  their  great  anxiety. 

RULE  7.  Jldjectivef,  taken  as  nouns,  and  used  in  reference  to 
persons,  arc  generally  of  the  plural  number;  as, 

The  valiant  never  taste  of  death  but  once.  The 
virtuous  are  generally  the  most  happy.  The  diligent 
make  most  improvement.  The  sincere  are  always  es- 
teemed. The  inquisitive  are  generally  talkative.  The 
dissipated  are  much  to  be  pitied.  The  company  of  the 
profane  should  be  carefully  avoided.  The  temperate 
are  generally  the  most  healthy. 

RULE  8.  Nouns  and  pronouns,  takenin  the  same  connection,  must  ' 
be  of  the  same  case;  as, 

The  master  taught  him  and  me  to  write.  He  and 
she  were  school-fellows.  My  brother  and  he  are  toler- 
able grammarians.  He  gave  the  book  to  John  and 
Thomas.  I  lent  my  knife  and  pencil  to  one  of  the 
scholars.  Peter  and  John  gained  the  highest  prizes. 
The  snow  and  the  ice  have  quite  disappeared.  Exer- 
cise and  temperance  are  the  best  promoters  of  health. 

RULE  9.  JL  relative  generally  precedes  the  verb  that  governs  it;  as, 

He  is  a  friend  loliom  I  greatly  respect.  They  whom 
luxury  has  corrupted,  can  not  relish  the  simple  plea- 
sures of  life.  The  books  which  I  bought  yesterday, 
I  have  not  yet  received.  The  trees  which  he  planted 
in  the  spring  have  all  died.  He  has  lost  the  friend 
whom  he  so  much  respected.  The  lesson  which  we 
have  finished,  has  not  been  difficult. 

RULE  10.  When  both  a  relative  and  its  antecedent  have  each  a 
verb  belonging  to  it,  the  relative  is  commonly  the  nominative  to 
the  first  verb .  and  the  antecedent  to  the  second;  as, 


§40.  ETYMOLOGY.  79 

HE  who  acts  wisely  DESERVES  praise.  He  who  is  a 
stranger  to  industry,  may  possess,  but  he  can  not  enjoy. 
They  who  are  born  in  high  stations  are  not  always  the 
most  happy.  The  man  who  is  faithfully  attached  to 
religion,  may  be  relied  on  with  confidence.  Those  who 
excite  envy  will  easily  incur  censure. 

RULE  11 .  What,  being  equal  to  that  which,  or  the  thing  which, 
may  represent  two  cases,  either  both  nominatives  or  both  objectives; 
or,  the  one  the  nominative  and  the  other  the  objective;  as, 

This  is  precisely  ivliat  was  necessary.  What  can  not 
be  prevented,  must  be  endured.  We  must  not  delay 
till  to-morrow,  what  ought  to  be  done  to-day.  Choose 
what  is  most  fit;  custom  will  make  it  the  most  agree- 
able. Foolish  men  are  more  apt  to  consider  what  they 
have  lost,  than  what  they  possess. 

RULE  12.  Whoever  and  whosoever,  used  as  relatives  (§  16,  Obs. 
3).  generally  have  the  antecedent  implied^so  that  they  seem  to  stand 
as  the  nominative  to  two  verbs ,  or  as  at  once  the  objective  after  a  verb 
or  preposition,  and  the  nominative  to  a  succeeding  verb.  The  same 
is  the  case  with  whatever  and  whatsoever-,  as, 

Whoever  told  such  a  story,  must  have  been  misin- 
formed. Whoever  is  not  content  in  poverty,  would  not 
be  perfectly  happy  in  the  midst  of  plenty.  Whoever 
passes  his  time  in  idleness,  can  make  but  little  im- 
provement. Whatever  gives  pain  to  others,  deserves 
not  the  name  of  pleasure.  Whatever  is  worth  doing 
at  all,  is  worth  doing  well. 

NOTE.  Whatever  is  most  frequently  used,  as  what  sometimes  is  (§  16,  Obs 
2),  simply  to  qualify  a  noun;  as, 

Aspire  to  perfection,  in  whatever  state  of  life  you 
may  be  placed.  I  forgot  what  words  he  uttered.  By 
what  means  shall  we  obtain  wisdom.  By  whatever 
arts  we  may  attract  attention,  we  can  secure  esteem 
only  by  amiable  dispositions. 

RULE  13.  Though  participles  never  directly  declare,  yet  they 
always  imply  something  either  done  or  doing^  and  are  used  in 
reference  to  some  noun  or  pronoun  ;  as, 

Admired  and  applauded,  he  became  vain.  Having 
finished  our  lessons,  we  went  to  play.  Proceeding  on 


80  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  40 

his  journey,  he  was  seized  with  a  dangerous  malady. 
Being  engaged  at  the  time  of  my  call,  he  had  not  a  mo- 
ment to  spend  with  me.  Having  early  disgraced  him- 
self, he  became  mean  and  dispirited.  Knowing  him  to 
be  my  superior,  I  cheerfully  submitted. 

RULE  14.  The  past  participle  of  a  few  intransitive  verbs  is  some- 
times joined  to  the  verb  to  be,  which  gives  them  a  passive  appear* 
nnce  ;  as, 

I  am  come,  in  compliance  with  your  desire.  If  such 
maxims  and  practices  prevail,  what  is  become  of  de- 
cency and  virtue  ?  The  old  house  is  at  length  fallen 
down.  John  is  gone  to  London. 

RULE  15.  Intransitivcs  are  often  followed  by  prepositions,  ma- 
king what  are  sometimes  called  compound  transitive  verbs.  The 
verb  and  preposition  may  in  such  cases  be  parsed  either  together 
or  separately  in  the  active  voice.  In  the  passive  voice ,  they  must 
be  parsed  together  /  as, 

He  laughed  at  such  folly.  They  smiled  upon  us  in 
such  a  way  as  to  inspire  courage.  He  struck  at  his 
friend  with  great  violence.  He  was  much  laughed  at 
for  such  conduct.  He  was  prevailed  upon  to  go. 

RULE  16.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  often  used  with  a  participle , 
without  being  connected  in  grammatical  construction  with  any 
other  icords  of  the  sentence.  It  is  then  called  the  nominative  AB- 
SOLUTE 5  as, 

The  father  being  dead,  the  whole  estate  came  into 
the  hands  of  the  eldest  son.  He  destroyed,  or  won  to 
what  may  work  his  utter  loss,  all  this  will  soon  follow. 
Whose  gray  top  shall  tremble,  he  descending.  The 
house  being  built  and  finished,  he  was  expected  to  take 
immediate  possession.  The  sun  rising,  darkness  flies 
away.  Our  work  being  finished,  we  will  play. 

RULE  17.  To,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  is  omitted  after  the 
verbs  bid,  dare,  need,  make,  see,  hear,  feel,  and  let  in  the  active 
voice;  and  sometimes  after  perceive,  behold,  observe,  have,  know, 
etc.-,  as, 

Let  me  look  at  your  portrait.  He  bade  me  go  with 
him.  I  heard  him  assert  the  opinion  I  like  to  sse  you 


§  40.  ETYMOLOGY.  81 

behave  so  well.  Let  him  apply  to  his  books,  and  then 
lie  will  make  improvement.  Let  us  make  all  the  haste 
in  our  power.  I  saw  him  ride  past  at  great  speed.  I 
have  observed  some  satirists  use  the  term. 

RULE  18.  Verbs  connected  by  conjunctions,  are  usually  in  the 
same  mood  and  tense;  but  in  the  compound  tenses  the  sign  is  often 
used  with  the  first  only,  and  understood  with  the  rest;  as, 

He  can  neither  read  nor  write.  He  shall  no  longer 
tease  and  vex  me  as  he  has  done.  He  commanded  them 
that  they  should  not  depart  from  Jerusalem,  but  wait 
for  the  promise  of  the  father.  His  diligence  should  have 
been  commended  and  rewarded.  Every  mind,  in  its 
present  state,  is  obliged  to  receive  information,  and 
execute  its  purposes,  by  the  intervention  of  the  body. 
Fame  can  not  spread  wide,  or  endure  long,  that  is  not 
rooted  in  nature,  and  matured  by  art. 

RULE  19.  Nouns  and  pronouns  are  often  governed  by  a  preposi- 
tion understood;  and  nouns  fcno'.vtg  time,  value,  weight,  or  measure, 
are  used  to  restrict  verbs  or  adjectives  without  a  governing  word 
(307) ;  as, 

He  gave  (to)  me  a  full  account  of  the  whole  affair. 
Will  you  lend  me  your  knife.  It  is  not  time  yet  to  go 
home.  He  returned  home  at  a  very  inconvenient  sea- 
son. He  travelled  on  foot  last  summer  as  far  as  Lon- 
don. He  was  in  Paris  last  month.  He  visited  Rome 
last  year  in  the  spring.  They  remained  twenty-four 
days  at  Naples,  and  walked  twelve  miles  each  day. 
I  sent  him  the  despatches  some  time  ago.  A  wall  ten 
feet  high.  It  is  worth  a  dollar. 

RULE  20.  The  conjunctions  than  and  as,  implying  comparison, 
'iave  the  same  case  after  them  as  before  them,  and  the  latter  case 
has  the  same  construction  as  the  former;  as, 

He  has  more  books  than  my  brother  (has).  Mary 
is  not  so  handsome  as  her  sister  (is).  They  respect 
him  more  than  (they  respect)  us.  James  is  not  so  dili- 
gent as  Thomas.  They  are  much  greater  gainers  than 
I  by  this  unexpected  event.  Though  she  is  not  so 
learned  as  he,  she  is  as  much  beloved  and  respected. 


. 

8b2  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  40. 

RULE  21.  The  class  of  words  or  part  of  speech  to  which  a  word 
belongs,  depends  often  on  its  application;  as, 

Calm  was  the  day,  and  the  scene,  delightful.  We 
may  expect  a  calm  after  a  storm.  To  prevent  passion, 
is  easier  than  to  calm  it.  Better  is  a  little  with  con-- 
tent,  than  a  great  deal  with  anxiety.  The  gay  and 
dissolute  think  little  of  the  miseries  which  are  stealing 
softly  after  them.  A  little  attention  will  rectify  some 
errors.  Though  he  is  out  of  danger,  he  is  still  afraid. 
He  laboured  to  still  the  tumult.  Still  waters  are  com 
monly  deepest.  Damp  air  is  unwholesome.  Guilt 
often  casts  a  damp  over  our  sprightliest  hours.  Soft 
bodies  damp  the  sound  much  more  than  hard  ones. 
Though  she  is  rich  and  fair,  yet  she  is  not  amiable. 
They  are  young,  and  must  suspend  their  judgment  yet 
a  while.  Many  persons  are  better  than  we  suppose 
them  to  be.  The  few  and  the  many  have  their  pre- 
possessions. Few  days  pass  without  some  clouds. 
Much  money  is  corrupting.  Think  much  and  speak 
little.  He  has  seen  much  of  the  world,  and  been  much 
caressed.  His  years  are  more  than  hers,  but  he  has 
not  more  knowledge.  The  more  we  are  blessed,  the 
more  grateful  we  should  be.  The  desire  of  getting 
more  is  rarely  satisfied.  He  has  equal  knowledge,  but 
inferior  judgment.  She  is  his  inferior  in  sense,  but  his 
equal  in  prudence. 

RULE  22.  Do,  have,an<i  be,  are  principal  verbs  when  used  by 
themselves^  but  auxiliaries  when  connected  with  oiher  verbs;  as, 

He  does  all  in  his  power  to  gain  esteem.  He  did  his 
utmost  to  please  his  friend.  We  must  do  nothing  that 
will  sully  our  reputation.  She  lias  a  strong  claim  to 
our  respect.  They  had  not  the  slightest  intention  to 
wound  our  feelings.  The  man  who  has  no  sense  of 
religion,  is  little  to  be  trusted.  He  who  does  the  most 
good,  has  the  most  pleasure.  They  were  not  in  the 
most  prosperous  circumstances, when  we  last  saw  them. 
He  does  not  write  so  well  as  he  reads.  We  did  not 
stay  with  him  more  than  a  month.  True  wisdom  doetr* 
not  inspire  pride.  The  butler  did  not  remember  Jo 


§  40.  ETYMOLOGY.  S3 

seph.  Did  he  send  the  book,  as  he  was  desired  ?  Do 
they  make  much  progress  in  their  studies  ?  Have  they 
ascertained- the  person  who  gave  the  information? 
They  had  not  determined  what  course  to  take.  We 
are  surprised  at  the  news. 

RULE  23.  An  infinitive,  ei  participle,  or  a  member  of  a  sentence, 
which  may  be  called  a  substantive  phrase,  is  often  the  nominative 
to  a  verb,  or  the  objective  after  a  transitive  verb  or  preposition;  as, 

1.  Nominative.  To  study  hard,  is  the  best  way  to  im- 
prove.    To  endure  misfortune  with  resignation,  is  the 
characteristic  of  a  great  mind.    To  advise  the  ignorant, 
relieve  the  needy  and  comfort  the  distressed,  are  duties 
incumbent  on  all.    John's  being  from  home  occasioned 
the  delay.     His  having  neglected  opportunities  of  im- 
provement, was  the  cause  of  his  disgrace.     The  im- 
planting of  right  principles  in  the  breast  of  the  young, 
is  important  both  to  themselves  and  to  society.     To 
assist  a  friend  in  such  circumstances,  was  a  duty. 

2.  Objective.    He  that  knows  how  to  do  good,  and 
does   it  not,   is  without   excuse.     He  will  regret  his 
having  neglected  opportunities  of  improvement,  when 
it  may  be  too  late.     He  declared  that  nothing  could 
give  him  greater  pleasure.     Of  making  many  books 
there  is  no  end. 


84  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  40 

In  such  examples,  whether  the  phrase  be  in  the  nominative  or  objective  case, 
.  e.  whether  it  be  the  subject  of  a  verb,  or  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  pre- 


judge,"  asserts  a  fact.  "  His  being  a  judge J>  or,  "  to  be  ajiulge,"  assumes  it. 
In  all  these  examples  the  word  judge  is  the  predicate-nominative.  In  parsing 
such  phrases,  the  words  may  be  taken  separately,  or  the  whole  phrase  may  be 
parsed  as  one  word  (§  61,  Hem.  2).  See  also  Analytical  and  Practical  Gram* 
mar,  583-24,  with  references.  The  following  also  are  examples. 

He  had  the  honour  of  being  a  director  for  life.  By 
being  a  diligent  student,  he  soon  acquired  eminence  in 
his  profession.  Many  benefits  result  to  men  from  being 
wise  and  temperate  (men). 

RULE  24.  The  pronoun  it  often  refers  to  persons  (§  15,  Obs.  5) 
or  to  an  infinitive  or  clause  coming  after  /  as, 

It  is  John  that  is  to  blame.  It  was  I  that  wrote  the 
letter.  Itjs  the  duty  of  all  to  improve.  It  is  the  bu- 
siness of  every  man,  to  prepare  for  death.  It  was  re- 
served for  Newton,  to  discover  the  law  of  gravitation. 
It  is  easy  to  form  good  resolutions,  but  difficult  to  put 
them  in  practice.  It  is  incumbent  on  the  young, to  love 
and  honour  their  parents. 

RULE  25.    Words,  especially  in  poetry,   are  often  much  trans    . 
posed;  as, 

Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians.  On  yourself  de- 
pend for  aid.  Happy  the  man  who  puts  his  trust  i» 
his  maker.  Of  night  the  gloom  was  dark  and  dense. 

Or  where  the  gorgeous  east,  with  richest  hand, 
Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric,  pearls  and  gold. 

No  hive  hast  thou  of  hoarded  sweets . 

A  transient  calm  the  happy  scenes  bestow 

When  first  thy  sire  to  send  on  earth 

Virtue,  his  darling  child,  designed. 

On  flattering  appearances  put  no  reliance. 

He  with  viny  crown  advancing. 

First  to  the  lively  pipe  his  hand  addressed. 

Grieved  though  thou  art,  forbear  the  rash  design. 
Not  half  so  dreadful  rises  to  the  sight 
Orion's  doa:.  the  year  whori  Autumn  weighs. 


§  41  ETYMOLOGY;  85 

§  41.  PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

The  world  was  made  by  a  Supreme  Being.  He  who 
made  it,  now  preserves  and  governs  it.  Nothing  hap- 
.pens  without  his  permission.  He  sees  all  our  actions, 
and  hears  all  our  words.  The  thoughts  of  the  heart 
are  known  to  him.  In  him  we  live,  he  gave  us  life,  and 
without  him  we  can  not  breathe.  Wherever  we  are, 
God  is  with  us.  When  we  sit  in  the  house,  God  is 
there;  and  when  we  walk  by  the  way,  he  is  at  our 
right  hand.  He  is  a  spirit,  and  fills  heaven  and  earth 
with  his  presence. 

Demosthenes,  who  was  born  at  Athens,  was  a  very 
famous  orator.  He  acquired  the  art  of  speaking  by 
great  labor  and  study.  By  nature  he  had  not  a  good 
voice,  and  could  not  rightly  pronounce  some  words. 
That  he  might  learn  to  speak  distinctly,  he  put  small 
round  pebbles  in  his  mouth  while  he  spoke,  in  order  to 
cure  his  defect.  He  used  to  shut  himself  up  in  his 
chamber,  and  to  study  a  whole  month  together.  He 
often  went  to  the  shore,  and  pronounced  his  orations 
to  the  waves,  that  he  might  be  better  able  to  endure 
the  noise  and  clamor  of  the  people.  He  made  many 
orations  both  on  private  and  public  occasions ;  but  he 
used  his  eloquence  chiefly  against  Philip,  king  of  Ma- 
cedon;  and,  in  several  orations,  he  stirred  up  the  Athe- 
nians to  make  war  against  him. 

The  mimic  thrush,  or  mocking  bird,  is  about  the  size 
of  a  blackbird,  but  somewhat  more  slender.  The  plu- 
mage is  grey,  but  paler  on  the  under  parts  than  above. 

This  capricious  little  mimic  seems  to  have  a  singular 
pleasure  in  archly  leading  other  birds  astray.  He  is 
said  at  one  time  to  allure  the  smaller  birds  with  the 
call  of  their  mates ;  and  when  these  come  near,  to  ter* 
rify  them  with  the  scream  of  the  eagle.  There  is 
scarcely  a  bird  of  the  forest,  that  is  not  at  some  time 
deceived  by'his  call. 

None.  For  additional  exercises  in  parsing,  any  simple  correct  writer  ma? 
be  used. 

8 


PART  THIRD. 

§  43.     SYNTAX. 

254.  SYNTAX  is  that  part  of  Grammar  which 
treats  of  the  proper  arrangement  and  connection 
of  words  in  a  sentence. 

255.  A  sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  makes  com- 
plete sense  •,  as,  Man  is  mortal. 

256.  A  phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  together,  but 
not  making  complete  sense-,  as,  In  truth;  to  be  plain  with  you, 

257.  Sentences  are  of  two  kinds,  Simple  and  Compound. 

258.  A  Simple  sentence  has  but  one  subject  and  one  finite  verb, 
i.  e.  a  verb  not  in  the  infinitive  or  participles-,  as,  Life  is  short. 

259.  A  Compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more  simple  sen- 
tences combined;  as,  Life,  which  is  short,  should  be  well  employed. 

260.  Every  simple  sentence  consists  of  two  parts,  the  subject 
and  the  predicate. 

261.  The  subject  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed-,  as, 
Snow  is  white:  John  reads. 

262.  The  predicate  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject  5  as% 
Snow  is  white:  John  reads. 

263.  The  predicate  properly  consists  of  two  parts — the  attribute 
affirmed  of  the  subject,  and  the  copula  by  which  the  affirmation  is 
made.     Thus  in  the  first  example,  is  white  is  the  predicate,  of 
which  white  is  the  attribute,  and  is,  the  copula. 

264.  The  attribute  and  copula  are  generally  expressed  by  one 
word,  which  in  that  case  must  always  be  a  verb,  as  in  the  second 
example-,  John  reads  —  John  is  reading.     Hence, 

265.  The  predicate  may  be  a  noun  or  pronoun,  an  adjective,  a 
preposition  with  its  case,  or  an  adverb ;  also  an  infinitive,  or  clause 
of  a  sentence  as  an  attribute,  together  with  the  copula  by  which 
it  is  connected  with,  and  affirmed  of  the  subject-,  or  it  may  be  a 
verb,  which  includes  in  itself  both  attribute  and  copula. 

266.  Both  subject  and  predicate  may  each  be  attended  by  other 
words  called  adjuncts,  which  serve  to  modify  or  restrict  the 
meaning  of  the  word  with  which  they  stand  connected-,  ag,  *c  An 


§  44  45.  SYNTAX.  87 

inordinate  desire  of  admiration  often  produces  a  contemptible  levity 
of  deportment." 

267.  The  subject  without  an  adjunct,  is  called  the  Grammatical 
subject;  with  its  adjunct,  it  is  called  tne  Logical  subject. 

268.  The  predicate  without  an  adjunct,  is  called  the  Gramma- 
tical predicate;  with  its  adjunct,  it  is  called  tne  Logical  predicate t 

269.  When  a  compound  sentence  is  so  framed  that  the  meaning 
is  suspended  till  the  whole  be  finished,  it  is  called  a  Period. 

270.  §  44.  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  SYNTAX. 

1.  In  every  sentence,  there  must  be  a  verb  and  a  no- 
minative   or  subject,    expressed  or  understood. 

2.  Every  article,  adjective,  adjective  pronoun,  or  par 
ticiple,  must  have  a  substantive  expressed  or  understood, 

3.  Every  subject-nominative  has  its  own  verb  ex- 
pressed or  understood. 

4.  Every  verb  [except  in  the  infinitive  and  participles] 
has  its  own  nominative  expressed  or  understood. 

5.  Every  possessive  case  is  governed  by  a  substan- 
tive [50],  denoting  the  thing  possessed. 

6.  Every  objective  case  is  governed  by  a  transitive 
verb  in  the  active  voice,  or  preposition  [Exc.,  See  307], 

7.  The  infinitive  mood  is  governed  by  a  verb,  an 
adjective  or  substantive  [For  Exc.  See  §  67]. 

§  45.    PARTS  OF  SYNTAX. 

271.  The  Rules  of  Syntax  may  all  be  included  under 
three  heads,  Concord,  Government,  and  Position. 

272.  Concord  is  the  agreement  which  one  word  has 
with  another  in  gender,  number,  case,  or  person. 

273.  Government  is  that  power  which  one  word  has 
in  directing  the  mood,  tense  or  case  of  another  word. 

274.  Position  means  the  place  which  a  word  occu- 
pies in  a  sentence. 

275.  In  the  English  language,  which  has  but  few  inflections 
the  meaning  of  a  sentence  depends  much  on  its  arrangement 


88  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  46. 

276.  §  46.  RULE  I.  A  Verb  must  agree  with  iU 
nominative  in  number  and  person ;  as,  Thou  read- 
est,  He  reads,  We  read. 

277.  Rem.  1.  The  nominative  to  a  verb  is  known  by  putting  the  question  Who  I 
or  What  ?  with  the  verb.    The  answer  to  the  question  will  be  the  nominative 
as,  "  I  read."    Who  reads?  Am.  /. 

278.  Rem  2.  Under  this  rule  the  General  Principles  $  44.  3,  4,  must  be  cam. 
lally  observed.    For,  as  follows,  as  concerns,  as  appears,  <fcc.    See  §  86,  3. 

EXERCISES. 

I  loves  reading.  A  soft  answer  turn  away  wrath. 
We  is  but  of  yesterday,  and  knows  nothing.  The  days 
of  man  is  but  as  grass.  Thou  sees  how  little  has  been 
done.  He  need  not  proceed  in  such  haste.  He  dare 
not  act  otherwise.  Fifty  pounds  of  wheat  contains  forty 
pounds  of  flour.  A  variety  of  pleasing  objects  charm 
the  eye.  So  much  both  of  ability  and  merit  are  seldom 
found.  Nothing  but  vain  and  foolish  pursuits  delight 
some  persons.  A  judicious  arrangement  of  studies  fa- 
cilitate improvement.  A  few  pangs  of  conscience  now 
and  then  interrupts  his  pleasure,  and  whispers  to  him 
that  he  once  had  better  thoughts.  There  was  more 
impostors  than  one.  What  signifies  good  opinions,  when 
our  practice  is  bad?  To  these  precepts  are  subjoined 
a  copious  selection  of  rules  and  maxims. 

In  vain  our  flocks  and  fields  increase  our  store, 
When  our  abundance  make  us  wish  for  more. 
The  number  of  our  days  are  with  thee.     There  re- 
mains two  points  to  be  considered.    There  is  in  fact  no 
impersonal  verbs  in  any  language.     I  have  considered 
what  have  been  said  on  both  sides.     Great  pains  has 
been  taken  to  make  this  work  as  useful  as  possible. 
In  piety  and  virtue  consist  the  happiness  of  man. 

In  order  to  exercise  the  judgment  of  the  pupil,  as  well  as  to  show  that  he  under- 
itands  the  rule,  he  may  be  required  to  assign  a  reason  for  the  changes  made  in 
iorrecting  the  exercises  under  this  and  the  following  rules.  If  well  versed  in 
parsing,  this  may  be  done  without  loss  of  time,  even  in  a  large  class,  by  directing 
him  to  state  the  reason  always,  without  waiting  to  be  asked  for  it.  Thus  in  tho 
preceding  exercises,  "Loves"  should  be  "love,"  because  " /"  is  the  1st  pers 
sing.  "Turn"  should  be  "turns,"  because  "answer"  is  the  3d  per*,  sing.  &c 


§  47  SYNTAX.  89 

§  47    SPECIAL  RULES  AND  OBSERVATIONS  UNDER  RULE  i 

279.  RULE  I.   The  subject  of  a  verb  should  be  in  the  nominative, 
as,  He  and  she  are  of  the  same  age ;  not,  Him  and  her. 

280.  RULE  II.    The  Infinitive  mood  or  part  of  a  sentence's  often 
used  as  the  nominative  to  a  verb ;  as,    To  play  is  pleasant-,  Hi* 
being  at  enmity  with  Ccesar,  was  the  cause  of  perpetual  discord. 

281.  RULE  III.  A  noun  singular  used  for  a  plural,  is  joined  to  a 
-plural  verb  /    as,  Ten  sail  of  the  line  were  seen  at  a  distance. 
§  10,  4,note.} 

282.  NOTE.    Nouns  plural  in  form,  but  singular  In  signification,  may  bejoiueO 
with  either  a  singular  or  plural  verb.  §  10,  5. 

283.  RULE  IV.  Ji  noun  and  its  pronoun  should  never  be  used 
as  a  nominative  to  the  same  verb;  as,  The  king  is  just  $  not,  the 
king,  he  is  just.    Except  that  himself ',  herself,  etc.  are  joined  with 
a  noun  or  pronoun,  rendering  it  emphatic.  §  15.  Obs.  2. 

284.  RULE  V.    When  the  verb  TO  BE  stands  between  a  singular 
and  a  plural  nominative,  it  agrees  with  the  one  next  it,  or  the  one. 
which  is  more  naturally  the  subject  of  it  /  as,  The  wages  of  sin 
is  death. 

EXERCISES  ON  PRECEDING  RULES. 

I.  Him  and  I  are  able  to  do  it.     You  and  us  enjoy 
many  privileges.     I  thought  you  and  them  had  become 
friends.    If  you  were  here,  you  would  find  three  or  four, 
whom  you  would  say  pass  their  time  very  agreeably. 

II.  To  live  soberly,  righteously  and  godly  are  requi- 
red of  all  men.  To  do  to  others  as  we  would  that  they 
should  do  to  us,  constitute  the  great  principle  of  virtue. 

III.  Forty  head  of  cattle  was  grazing  in  yonder  mea- 
dow.    Twelve  brace  of  pigeons  was  sold  for  a  dollar. 

IV.  Simple  and  innocent  pleasures  they  alone  are 
durable.    My  banks  they  are  furnished  with  bees.    This 
rule  if  it  had  been  observed,  a  neighboring  prince  would 
have  wanted  a  great  deal  of  that  incense  which  has 
been  offered  to  him.     John,  lie  said  so,  and  Thomas, 
he  said  so,  and  the  rest  of  them,  they  all  said  so. 

V.  A  great  cause  of  the  low  state  of  industry  was 
the  restraints  put  upon  it.    His  meat  were  locusts  and 
wild  honey.    The  crown  of  virtue  is  peace  and  honour. 

8* 


90  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  §  48. 

'285.  §  48.  RULE  II.  A  transitive  verb^  in  the 
active  voice,  governs  the  objective  case;  as,  We 
love  him.  He  loves  us.  Wliom  did  they  send? 

286.  S.  RUIE  I.    The  infinitive  mood,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  at 
icell  as  a  noun  or  pronoun,  may  be  the  object  of  a  transitive  active 
verb  ;  as,  Boys  love  to  play  ;  I  wish  that  they  were  wise. 

287.  S.  RULE  II.  Jin  intransitive  verb  used  transitively  (153). 
governs  the  objective  case;  as,  "  Let  us  run  the  race." 

288.  S.  RULE  III.  Verbs  signifying  TO  NAME,  CHOOSE,  APPOINI 
and  the  like,  govern  two  objectives;  as,  they  named  him  John. 

289.  Under  S.  RULE  II,  (287),  may  be  classed  such  expressions  as  the  follow, 
uig :  u  The  brooks  ran  nectar."  "The  trees  wept  gums  and  balm." 

290.  Rem.  1.  The  participle,  being  a  part  of  the  verb,  governs  the  same  case. 

291.  Rem   2.  "When  the  objective  is  a  relative  or  an  interrogative,  it  comes  be- 
fore the  verb  that  governs  it. 

292.  Rem.  3.  A  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice,  without  an  object,  either 
has  an  object  understood,  or  is  used  intransitively  (155). 

293.  Rem.  4.  As  substantives  have  no  distinct  form  of  the  objective  case,  the 
arrangement  of  the    sentence  should  clearly  distinguish  the  one  case  from  the 
other.    The  nominative  generally  precedes  the  verb ;  the  objective   follows   it; 
but  when  the  objective  is  a  relative  or  interrogative,  it  precedes   both  the  verb 
and  Us  nominative.  The  objective  should  not,  if possible,be  separated  from  its  verb. 

EXERCISES. 

'  He  loves  I.  He  and  they  we  know,  but  who  art  thou  ? 
She  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply.  Ye 
only  have  I  known.  Let  thou  and  I  try  it.  He  who  is 
guilty,  thou  shouldst  correct;  not  I  who  am  innocent. 

(R.  I.)  Esteeming  theirselves  wise,  they  became  fools. 
Upon  seeing  I,  he  turned  pale.  Having  exposed  his  self 
to  the  fire  of  the  enemy,  he  soon  lost  an  arm  in  the  action. 

(R.  2.)  The  man  who  he  raised  from  obscurity,  is 
dead.  Who  did  they  entertain  so  freely?  They  are  the 
persons  who  we  ought  to  respect.  Who  having  not  seen, 
we  love.  They  who  opulence  has  made  proud,  and  who 
luxury  has  corrupted,  are  not  happy.  Who  do  I  love 
BO  much  ?  Who  shall  I  pay  for  this  service  ? 

(R.  3.)  Faulty  arrangement.  This  is  the  man,  he 
believed,  whom  he  would  send  on  that  business.  Becket 
could  not  better  discover,  than  by  attacking  so  power- 
ful an  interest,  his  resolution  to  maintain  his  right. 


49.  SYNTAX.  91 


§  49     SPECIAL  RULES  UNDER 

294.  I.  Intransitive  verbs  never  govern  an  objective  case;  thus 
M  Repenting  him  of  his  design,"  should  be,  "  repenting  of  his 
design." 

295.  Rem.  Such  expressions  as  "laughed  him  to  scorn;"  "  looked  daggert;" 
'  Talked  the  night  away,"  fire  anomalies. 

296.  II.  Intransitive  verbs  do  not  admit  a  passive  voice. 

297.  NOTE.  An  intransitive  verb  used  transitively  (153),  is  in  that  case  consi- 
dered transitive,  and  not  subject  to  the  preceding  rules. 

29  S.  III.  Transitive  verbs  do  not  admit  a  preposition  after 
them;  thus,  u  I  must  premise  with  three  circumstances,"  should 
be,  "  I  must  premise  three  circumstances." 

299.  OBS.  Verbs  signifying  to  ask,  teach,  offer,  promise,  pay,  tell,  allow,  deny, 
and  some  others,  sometimes  in  colloquial  language  have  an  objective  case  after 
the  passive  voice  ;  as,  I  was  taught  Grammar.  This  may  also  be  expressed  ac- 
tively ;  as,  He  taught  (to)  me  Grammar  ;  or  passively,  Grammar  was  taught 
\to)  me. 

EXERCISES. 

I.  The  king  found  reason  to  repent  him  of  such  dan- 
gerous enemies.     They  did  not  fail  to  enlarge  them- 
selves on  the  subject.     Go  flee  thee  away  into  the  land 
of  Judea.     It  will  be  difficult  to  agree  his  conduct  with 
the  principles  he  professes.    "  Then  having  showed  his 
wounds,  he'd  sit  him  down." 

II.  This  person  was  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against 
his  master.     Fifty  men  are  deserted  from  the  army. 
The  influence  of  this  corrupt  example  was  then  entirely 
ceased.    My  father  was  returned  yesterday. 

III.  I  shall  premise  with  two  or  three  general  obser- 
vations.   He  ingratiates  with  some,  by  traducing  others. 
We  ought  to  disengage  from  the  world  by  degrees.  He 
tfill  not  allow  of  it.     They  shall  not  want  for  encou- 

agement.     The  covetous  man  pursues  after  gain. 

[OBS.]  Change  the  following  sentences  into  the  form* 
specified  in  the  Obs.  —  A  few  questions  were  asked  at 
cne  witness.  A  sliip  was  promised  to  him  in  a  few 
weeks.  A  pardon  was  offered  [to]  him.  Great  liberty 
was  allowed  [to]  me.  That  was  told  [to]  him  some 
time  ago.  The  jewels  ivere  offered  to  her. 


*92  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  50 

bOO.  §  50.  RULE  III.  Prepositions  govern  the 
objective  case ;  as,  To  whom  much  is  given,  of  him 
much  shall  be  required. 

301.  Obs    The  object  of  a  preposition  is  sometimes  an  infinitive  mood,  or  part 
of  a  sentence  j  as.  About  to  depart ;  Much  depends  on  who  are  his  advisers. 

302.  Rein.  1.  Prepositions  are  commonly  placed  before  the  words  which  they 
govern,  and  as  near  to  them  as  possible;  but  never  before  the  relative  that.  But 
whom  and  which  are  sometimes  governed  by  a  preposition  at  some  distance  after 
them ;  but  this  should  generally  be  avoided  in  composition. 

303.  Rem.  2.  The  preposition,  with  its  regimen^  should  be  placed  as  near  aa 
possible  to  the  word  to  which  it  is  related. 

304.  Rem.  3.  For  is  not  now  used  before  the  infinitive  mood. 

305.  Rer"  4.  It  is  generally  inelegant  and  improper  to  connect  a  preposition 
and  active  verb  with  the  same  word ;  as,  I  wrote  t o,  and  warned  him  of  his  danger. 

306.  Rem.  5.  The  preposition  is  often  omitted  ;  as.  Give  [to]  me  the  book ;  do 
it  [in]  your  own  way ;  I  wrote  [to]  you  long  ago ;  like  [unto]  his  father.     Many 
cases  of  suppose;!  ellipsis,  however,  may  come  under  tke  following : 

307.  S.  RULE.  Nouns  denoting  time,  value,  weight,  or  measure, 
are  commonly  put  in  the  objective  case,  without  a  governing  word  ; 
as,  "  He  was  absent  six  months"  "  It  costs  a  penny  ;  but  it  is  not 
worth  &  farthing?  "  The  parcel  weighs  a  pound?  "  The  wall  is 
six  feet  high." 

EXERCISES. 

To  who  will  you  give  that  pen  ?  Will  you  go  with 
him  and  I  ?  Withhold  not  good  from  they  to  who  it  is 
due.  With  who  do  you  live  ?  Great  friendship  subsists 
between  he  and  I.  He  laid  the  suspicion  on  somebody, 
I  know  not  who,  in  the  company.  [Eem.  1]  Who  do 
you  speak  to  ?  Who  did  they  ride  with  ?  To  have  no 
one  who  we  are  concerned  for,  is  a  deplorable  state. 
It  was  not  he  whom  they  were  so  angry  with.  The  book 
which  the  story  is  printed  in,  is  full  of  fiction.  2.  The 
embarrassments  of  the  artificers  rendered  the  progress 
very  slow  of  the  work.  Beyond  this  period,  the  arts 
can  not  be  traced  of  civil  society.  3.  What  went  ye 
out  for  to  see  ?  Can  you  give  me  wax  for  to  seal  this 
letter  ?  He  set  out  for  to  go  home  an  hour  ago.  4.  He 
was  afraid  of,  and  wished  to  shun  them.  He  claimed 
and  insisted  upon  his  rights.  5.  Will  you  lend  to 
me  your  grammar?  I  will  return  it  on  to-morrow. 


§  51.  SYNTAX.  93 

308.  §  51.  RULE  IV.  Two  or  more  substantives 
singular,  taken  in  connection,  require  a  verb  in  the 
plural;  as,  1.  Cato  and  Cicero  were  learned.  2.  Honor, 
justice,  religion  itself,  are  derided  by  the  profligate. 

309.  Rein.  1.  Substantives  are  viewed  in  connection  when  they  stand  togethej 
as  the  nominative  to  the  same  verb,  not  separately,  but  combined,  forming  a  plu- 
ral subject,  i.  e.  a  subject  consisting  of  more  things  than  one.    Sometimes  they 
are  joined  by  the  conjunction  and,  as  in  the  first  example ;  sometimes  they  are 
without  a  conjunction,  as  in  the  second. 

310.  Rem.  2.  A  singular  nominative  and  an  objective  connected  by  trith,  some 
times  have  a  plural  verb;  as,  "The  ship  with  the  crew  were  lost."    This  coo. 
struction  is  incorrect,  and  should  not  be  imitated.    It  should  be  "the  ship  with 
the  crew  was  lost,"  or,  "  the  ship  and  the  creiv  were  lost." 

311.  Rem.  3.  But  when  two  names  are  used  to  represent  one  subject,  the  verb 
must  be  in  the  singular ;  as,  Why  is  dust  and  ashes  proud. 

312.  Rem.  4.  When  comparison  is  expressed  or  implied,  and  not  combination^ 
the  verb  should  be  singular ;  as,  Caesar,  as  well  as  Cicero,  was  remarkable  for 
eloquence  (315). 

EXERCISES. 

Patience  and  diligence,  like  faith,  removes  mountains. 
Life  and  death  is  in  the  power  of  the  tongue.  Wisdom, 
virtue,  happiness,  dwells  with  the  golden  mediocrity. 
Anger  and  impatience  is  always  unreasonable.  His 
politeness  and  good  disposition  was,  on  failure  of  their 
effect,  entirely  changed.  By  whose  power  all  good  and 
evil  is  distributed.  Languor  and  satiety  destroys  all 
enjoyment.  Out  of  the  same  mouth  proceedeth  bles- 
sing and  cursing.  Leisure  of  life  and  tranquillity  of 
mind,  which  fortune  and  your  own  wisdom  has  given 
you,  is  capable  of  being  better  employed. 

[Rem.  3.]  That  able  scholar  and  critic  have  been  emi- 
nently useful.  Your  friend  and  patron,  whose  name  1 
have  forgotten,  have  just  now  been  enquiring  for  you. 

[Rem.  4.]  I,  as  well  as  they,  are  entitled  to  redress. 
Perseverance,  as  well  as  talents  and  application,  are 
necessary  to  eminence  in  literary  pursuits.  But  he,  as 
well  as  Lord  Clive,  have  been  harshly  judged  bj  mei» 
who  have  listened  to  their  enemies. 


94  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  §  52 

313.  §  52.  RULE  V.  Two  or  more  substantives 
singular,  taken  separately,  or  one  to  the  exclusion  of 
tiie  rest,  have  a  verb  in  the  singular;  as,  John,  or 
James,  or  Andrew,  intends  to  accompany  you. 

311.  R0m.  1.  Substantive?  are  taken  separately,  when,  though  they  all  stand  as 
the  nominative  to  the  verb,  yet  either  one,  exclusive  of  all  the  rest,  is  the  subject 
Df discourse,  as  in  the  example  above;  or,  though  all  are  equally  the  subject  of 
discourse,  yet  they  are  not  so  in  combination,  but  individually.  In  this  case  the 
verb  agrees  with  the  last,  and  is  understood  to  the  rest. 

315.  Rein.  2.  Substantives  taken  separately  are  connected  by  or,  nor,  as  well 
is,  and  also.  A  noun  taken  to  the  exclusion  of  the  rest  is  connected  wuh  them 
by  such  expressions  as,  and  not,  but  not,  not,  etc.  Also  nouns  after  each,  every, 
no,  though  connected  by  and.  But  each  and  every  used  distributively  after  a 
plural  subject,  do  not  affect  the  verb;  as,  u  They  have  conspired,  each  to  re- 
commend the  other;"  "  They,  each  in  his  turn,  have  done  their  duty." 

316.  RULE.  A  singular  and  a  plural  nominative,  connected  by 
a  disjunctive,  require  a  verb  in  the  plural,  and  the  plural  nomi- 
native should  be  placed  next  the  verb;  as,  Neither  the  captain  nor 
the  sailors  were  saved. 

EXERCISES. 

Either  the  boy  or  the  girl  were  present.  It  must 
be  confessed  that  a  lampoon  or  a  satire  do  not  carry  in 
it  robbery  or  murder.  The  modest  virgin,  the  prudent 
wife,  or  the  careful  matron,  are  much  more  serviceable 
in  life  than  a  petticoated  philosopher.  Neither  precept 
nor  discipline  are  so  forcible  as  example.  A  clock  or 
a  watch  move  merely  as  it  is  moved.  Every  man, 
woman,  and  child,  were  excluded.  They,  every  one, 
pursues  their  destined  course.  Each  of  the  seasons,  as 
it  revolves,  give  fresh  proof  of  the  Divine  power  and 
goodness.  The  seasons,  each  as  it  revolves,  gives  plea- 
sure to  the  soul.  Neither  poverty  nor  riches  was  inju- 
rious to  him.  They  or  he  was  offended.  Neither  the 
king  nor  his  ministers  deserves  to  be  praised.  Whether 
one  or  more  was  concerned  in  the  business,  does  not 
yet  appear.  An  ostentatious,  a  feeble,  a  harsh,  or  an 
obscure  style,  are  always  a  fault.  Neither  the  captain, 
nor  the  passengers,  nor  any  of  the  crew,  was  saved. 


§  53,  SYNTAX.  95 

317.  §  53.  RULE  VI.  1.  IVhen  two  or  more  nomina- 
tives combined  are  of  different  persons,  the  verb  is 
plural,  and  prefers  the  jirst  person  to  the  second,  and 
the  second,to  the  third;  as,  He  and  I  are  brothers. 

2.  When  nominatives  of  different  persons  are  dis- 
junctively connected,  the  verb  in  the  singular  agrees 
with  the  person  next  to  it;  as,  "He  or  lam  to  blame."" 

It  is  generally  better,  however,  to  express  the  verb 
with  each  nominative;  as,  "He  is  to  blame,or  I  am." 

318.  Rem.  1.  In  the  order  of  arrangement  in  English,  the  second  person  if 
usually  placed  before  the  third,  and  the  first  person  is  always  placed  last. 

319.  Rem.  2.  Under  the  first  of  these  rules,  if  the  verb  be  made  plural,  there 
will  be  no  liability  to  error  in  person,  as  all  the  persons  in  the  plural  are  alike. 
Still, the  rule  will  serve  to  point  out  the  person  of  the  verb.    Thus,  are  in  the  ex- 
ample is  in  the  first  person. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  James,  and  thou,  and  I,  am  attached  to  our  country. 
Thou,  and  the  gardener,  and  the  huntsman,  has  to 
share  the  blame  of  this  business.  My  sister  and  I,  as 
well  as  my  brother,  is  daily  employed  in  bur  respective 
occupations.  While  you  are  playing,  my  brother  and 
I  am  attentive  to  our  studies. 

2  Either  thou  or  I  art  greatly  mistaken.  He  or  I 
is  sure  of  this  week's  prize.  (Rem.  1)  I  or  John  has  done 
it.  He  or  thou  art  the  person  who  must  go  on  that  busi- 
ness. Thomas  or  thou  hast  spilt  the  ink  on  my  paper. 

Promiscuous  Exercises  on  the  Preceding  Rules. 

You  was  there.  Was  the  horses  ready.  There  are 
a  flock  of  geese.  In  the  human  species,  the  influence  of 
instinct  and  habit  are  generally  assisted  by  the  sugges- 
tions of  reason.  His  having  robbed  several  men,  were 
the  cause  of  his  punishment.  Learning,  how  much 
soever  it  may  be  despised  by  some,  yet  men  know  it  to 
be  an  acquirement  of  great  value.  He,  not  the  minis- 
ters, control  all  things.  His  wisdom  and  not  his  mo 
ney  produce  esteem. 


iHi  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  54. 

320.  §  54.  RULE  VII.  1.  When  a  collective  noun 
conveys  the  idea  of  unity,  its  verb  must  be  singular  ; 
as,  The  class  was  large. 

2.  When  a  collective  noun  conveys  the  idea  of 
plurality,  the  verb  must  be  plural;  as,  My  people  do 
not  consider. 

321.  Rem.  1.  Pronouns  referring  to  collective  nouns  must  in  like  manner  ba 
singular  or  plural,  according  as  the  idea  of  unity  or  plurality  is  expressed  (343). 

322.  Rcm.  2.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  noun  expressei 
unity  or  plurality.     It  is  now  considered  generally  best  to  use  the  plural  where 
the  singular  is  not  manifestly  required. 

EXERCISES. 

Stephen's  party  were  entirely  broken  up.  The  meet- 
ing were  well  attended.  The  people  has  no  opinion  of 
their  own.  The  people  was  very  numerous.  A  com- 
pany of  troops  were  despatched  to  the  opposite  side  of 
the  river.  The  people  rejoices  in  what  should  give 
them  sorrow.  The  multitude  eagerly  pursues  pleasure 
as  their  chief  good.  In  France,  the  peasantry  goes 
barefooted,  while  the  middle  sort  makes  use  of  wooden 
shoes.  The  British  parliament  are  composed  of  king, 
lords,  and  commons.  The  fleet  is  all  arrived  and 
moored  in  safety.  The  flock,  and  not  the  fleece,  are, 
or  ought  to  be,  the  object  of  the  shepherd's  care. 
When  the  nation  complain,  the  rulers  should  listen. 
The  regiment  consist  of  a  thousand  men.  Never  were 
any  nation  so  infatuated.  But  this  people  who  know 
not  the  law  is  cursed.  The  shoal  of  herrings  were  im- 
mense. Why  do  this  generation  seek  after  a  sign  ?  The 
fleet  were  seen  sailing  up  the  channel.  Mankind  is 
more  united  by  the  bonds  of  friendship  at  present  than 
formerly.  Part  of  the  coin  were  preserved.  The  royal 
society  are  numerous  and  flourishing.  "  The  lowing 
herd  wind  slowly  o'er  the  lea."  The  noble  army  of 
martyrs  praiseth  thee,  0  God !  A  great  number  of 
women  were  present.  The  audience  takes  this  in  good 
part.  All  mankind  composes  one  family. 


§  55*  SYNTAX.  97 

323.  §  55.  RULE  VIII.  1.  An  adjective  qualifies 
the  substantive  to  which  it  belongs;  as,  A  good  boy 

2.  Adjectives  denoting  one,  qualify  nouns  in  the 
singular;  those  denoting  more  than  one,  qualify 
nouns  in  the  plural ;  as,  This  man,  these  men. 

324.    Rem.  1.  This  rule  applies  also  to  participles,  and  adjective  prononrs. 
325.  S.  RULE.  Adjectives  should  not  be  used  as  adverbs;  thu's, 
'   He  is  miserable  poor,"  should  be  "  he  is  miserably  poor." 

326.  Rem.  2.  The  distinction  is :  adjectives  qualify  substantives ;  adverbs  mo 
Jify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs 

327.  Rem.  3.  Adjective*  joined  with  the  singular,  arc  the  ordinal  numbers, 
first)  second,  last,  &c. ;  one,  each,  every,  either,  neither,  much  with  its  compara- 
tive more — all,  denoting  quantity,  enough,  whole.    See  §  18,  (137). 

328.  When  any  of  these  is  joined  with  a  plural  noun,  the  whole  is  regarded 
as  one  aggregate  ;  as,  The  first  two  iveeks ;  Every  ten  miles.  App.  XX. 

329.  R&m.  4.  Adjectives  joined  with  the  plural  only,  are  all  cardinal  numbera 
above  one,  the  words  few,  many ,  with  its  comparative  more,  both,  several,  enow 
Many  is  sometimes  construed  with  a  singular  noun;  as,  "  Full  many  a  flower." 

330.  Rem.  5.  The  adjectives,  all.  no,  some,  other,  may  be  joined  with  a  sin 
gular  or  plural  noun  according  to  the  sense. 

331  Rem.  5.  "This  here,"  "  that  there,"  for  this  ani  that;  and  "them/* 
"them  there,"  for  these  and  those,  are  vulgarisms, 

332.  Rem.  6.  This  means  and  that  means  refer  to  one  cause ;  these  means, 
those  means,  to  more  than  one  (§  10,  5  note].  Amends  is  used  in  the  same  way 

333. [.Rem.  8.  An  adjective  as  a.  predicate  qualifies  the  subject;  as,  (rod  is  good.] 

EXERCISES. 

This  boys  are  diligent.  I  have  not  seen  him  this  ten 
days.  Those  sort  of  people  fear  nothing.  These  sol 
diers  are  remarkable  tall.  They  behaved  the  noblest. 
It  is  uncommon  good.  Them  books  are  almost  new. 
Give  me  that  there  knife.  These  kind  of  favors  did 
real  injury.  There  is  six  foot  of  water  in  the  hold.  I 
have  no  interests  but  that  of  truth  and  virtue.  You 
will  find  the  remark  in  the  second  or  third  pages. 
Charles  was  extravagant,  and  by  those  means  became 
poor.  The  scholars  were  attentive  and  industrious, 
and  by  that  means  acquired  knowledge.  Let  each  es- 
teem others  better  than  themselves.  Are  either  of 
these  men  your  friend  ? 
9 


08  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  $  56. 

334.    §  55.    RULE  IX.     JlHien  two  persons  or 
'  things  are  contrasted,  that  refers  to  the  first  men- 
tioned, and  this  to  the  last ;  as,  Virtue  and  vice  are 
opposite   qualities;  that  ennobles  the   mind,  this 
debases  it. 

335.  Hem.  1.  Former  and  latter,  one  and  other,  are  often  used  instead  of  that  and 
this.     Farmer  and  latter  are  alike  in  both  numbers ;  one  and  other  refer  to  the 
ginguiar  only.    That  and  this,  under  this  rule,  are  seldom  applied  to  persons;  but 
former  and  latter  are  applied  to  persons  or  things  indiscriminately.    In  most  cases 

Ihe  repetition  of  the  noun  is  preferable  to  either  of  them. 

336.  Rem.  2.  Hence  in  the  use  of  the  demonstratives  when  no  contrast  is  ex- 
pressed, this  and  these  refer  to  things  present  or  just  mentioned;  that  and  thout 
to  things  distant  or  formerly  mentioned.    Thus,  "  They  can  not  be  separated  from 
the  subject,  and  for  that  reason,"  &c.,  should  be  t:  and  for  this  reason,"  &c. 

EXERCISES. 

Wealth  and  poverty  are  both  temptations  to  man ; 
this  tends  to  excite  pride,  that  discontentment.  Reli- 
gion raises  men  above  themselves,  irreligion  sinks  them 
beneath  the  brutes ;  that  binds  them  down  to  a  poor 
pitiable  speck  of  perishable  earth,  this  opens  for  them 
a  prospect  to  the  skies.  The  king  and  the  tyrant  are 
very  different  characters ;  that  rules  his  people  by  his 
absolute  will  and  power,  this  by  laws  to  which  they 
consent.  More  rain  falls  in  the  first  two  summer 
months  than  in  the  first  two  winter  ones ;  but  it  makes 
a  much  greater  show  in  the  one  than  in  the  other,  be- 
cause there  is  a  much  slower  evaporation.  Health  is 
more  valuable  than  great  possessions,  and  yet  the  latter 
is  often  sacrificed  in  the  pursuit  of  the  former.  Exer- 
cise and  temperance  are  the  best  promoters  of  health: 
that  prevents  disease ;  this  often  dissipates  it. 

Self-love,  the  spring  of  motion,  moves  the  soul, 
Reason's  comparing-  balance  rules  the  whole: 
Man,  but  for  this,  no  action  could  attend-, 
Man,  but  for  that,  were  active  to  no  end. 

(Rem.  2.)  That  very  subject  which  we  are  now 
discussing,  is  still  involved  in  mystery.  This  vessel  of 
which  you  spoke  yesterday,  sailed  for  the  West  Indie? 
this  morning  at  ten  o'clock. 


§  57.  SYNTAX.  9il 

337.  §  57.  RULE  X.  Pronouns  agree  with  the 
nouns  for  which  they  stand,  in   gender,  number, 
and  person ;  as,  John  is  here  ;  he  came  an  hour  ago, 
Every  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit. 

SPECIAL  RULES. 

338.  RULE  I.    When  a    pronoun  refers  to  two  or  more  sub- 
stantives taken  together  and  of  different  persons,  it  becomes  plural, 
and  prefers  the  first  person  to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the 
third;  as,   John  and  /do  our  duty. 

339.  RULE  II.    When   a  pronoun  refers  to  two  or  more  sub' 
stantivcs  of  the  same  gender,  taken  separately,  or  to  one  of  them 
exclusively,  it. must  be  singular  ;  as,  A  clock  or  a  watch  is  com- 
plicated in  its  movements.  (315.) 

340.  NOTE.  Singular  substantives  of  different  genders,  taken  separately,  can  not 
r>e  represented  by  one  pronoun  in  English,  for  want  of  a  third  personal  pronoun 
of  the  common  gender;  thus,  we  can  not  say,  "If  a  man  or  a  woman  hurt  him 
telf."  In  such  cases,  though  contrary  to  rule,  it  is  better  to  use  the  plural, 
themselves,  than  the  clumsy  expression,  "hurt  himself  or  herself. 

341.  RULE  III.  But  if  either  of  the  substantives  referred  to 
be  plural,  the  pronoun  must  be  plural  also  /  as,  Neither  he  nor 
they  trouble  themselves. 

342.  Rem.  1.  Nouns  are  taken  together  when  connected  by  and  expressed  or 
understood  ;  separately,  when  connected  by  or  or  nor,  &c.  (see  314,  315). 

343.  RULE  IV.  When  a  pronoun  refers  to  a  collective  noun 
in  the  singular  expressing  many  as  one  whole,  it  should  be  in  the 
neuter  singular;  as,  The  army  proceeded  on  its  march.  But 
when  it  expresses  many  as  individuals,  the  pronoun  should  beplu* 
ral ;  as,  u  The  court  were  divided  in  their  opinions." 

344.  Rem.  2.  It  is  improper,  in  the  progress  of  a  sentence,  to  express  the  same 
object  by  pronouns  of  different  forms  or  genders;  as,  I  laboured  long  to  make 
thee  happy,  and  now  you  reward  me  by  ingratitude.  It  should  be  either,  "  to 
make  you  happy,"  or,  "thou  rewardest." 

EXERCISES. 

Answer  not  a  fool  according  to  her  folly.  A  stone 
is  heavy,  and  the  sand  weighty,  but  a  fool's  wrath  is 
heavier  than  them  both.  Take  handfuls  of  ashes  of  the 
furnace,  and  let  Moses  sprinkle  it  towards  heaven  in 
the  sight  of  Pharaoh;  and  it  shall  become  small  dust. 
The  crown  had  it  in  their  power  to  give  such  rewards 


100  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  57 

Exercises  on  RULE  X.  continued. 

as  they  thought  proper.  The  fruit  tree  beareth  fruii 
after  his  kind.  Rebecca  took  goodly  raiment  and  put 
them  upon  Jacob.  [Let  every  boy  answer  for  them- 
selves. Each  of  us  had  more  than  we  wanted.  Every 
one  of  you  should  attend  to  your  own  business.  A  man's 
recollections  of  the  past  regulate  their  anticipations  of 
the  future.  A  person's  success  in  life  depends  on  their 
exertions.] 

I.  Thou  and  he  shared  it  between  them.    James  and 
I  are  attentive  to  their  studies.   You  and  he  are  diligent 
in  reading  their  books;  therefore  they  are  good  boys. 

II.  John  or  James  will  favor  us  with  their  company. 
One  or  other  must  relinquish  their  claim.     Each  book 
and  each  paper  is  in  their  place.     Every  day  and  every 
hour  brings  their  own  temptations.      Neither  wealth 
nor  honor   confers  happiness  on   their  votaries.     No 
thought,  no  word,  no  action,  whether  they  be  good  or 
evil,  can  escape  in  the  judgment.      NOTE.  Let  every 
man  and  woman  do  her  best.    If  any  boy  or  girl  should 
neglect  her  duty,  they  shall  forfeit  their  place. 

IV.  The  assembly  held  their  meetings  in  the  evening. 
The  court  in  their  wisdom  decided  otherwise.  Society 
is  not  always  answerable  for  the  conduct  of  their  mem- 
bers. Send  the  multitude  away,  that  it  may  go  and 
buy  itself  bread.  The  public  are  informed  that  its  in- 
terests are  secured. 

[Rem.  2.]  Virtue  forces  her  way  through  obscurity, 
and  sooner  or  later  it  is  sure  to  be  rewarded.  Thou 
hast  ever  shewn  thyself  my  real  friend,  and  your  kind- 
ness to  me  I  can  never  forget.  Care  for  thyself,  i/ 
you  would  have  others  care  for  thee.  Though  you  are 
great,  yet  consider  thou  art  a  man. 

You  draw  the  inspiring  breath  of  ancient  song, 
Till  nobly  rises  emulous  thy  own. 

Thou,  goddess — mother,  with  our  sire  comply  j 
If  you  submit,  the  thunderer  stands  appeased. 


§  58.  SYNTAX.  101 

345.  §  58.  RULE  XI.  The  relative  agrees  with 
its  antecedent  in  number  and  person,  and  the  verb 
agrees  with  it  accordingly ;  as,  Thou  who  speakest. 
The  book  which  was  lost. 

346  Rem.  1.  The  antecedent,  or  that  to  which  the  relative  refers,  may  be  a 
noun,  or  pronoun,  as  in  the  examples  above ;  also  an  imperative  mood,  or  clause 
of  a  sentence ;  as,  "  To  act  rashly,  which  is  often  done,  is  unwise." 

347.  Rem.  2.  Who  is  applied  to  persons,  or  things  personified ;  which,  to  all 
other  objects — sometimes  to  children — to  collective  nouns  composed  of  persons, 
when  unity  is  expressed ;  and  also  to  persons  in  asking  questions.  §  17,  Obs.  1, 2, 4. 

348.  Rem.  3.  The  relative  that  is  used  instead  of  who  or  which — 

1.  After  adjectives  in  the  superlative  degree ;  after  the  words  very,  same  and 
att,  and  often  after  wo,  some  and  any. 

2.  When  the  antecedent  includes  both  persons  and  things ;  as,  The  man    and 
the  horse  that  we  saw  yesterday. 

3.  After  the  interrogative  who;  often  after  the  personal  pronouns,  and  gene- 
rally when  the  propriety  of  who  or  ivhich  is  doubtful ;  as,  Who  that  has  any  sense 
of  religion,  would  have  argued  thus.    I  that  speak  in  righteousness. 

EXERCISES. 

1  &  2.  Those  which  seek  wisdom,  will  certainly 
find  her.  This  is  the  friend  which  I  love.  That  is  the 
vice  whom  I  hate.  This  moon  who  rose  last  night  had 
not  yet  filled  her  horns.  Blessed  is  the  man  which 
walketh  in  wisdom's  ways.  Thou  who  has  been  a  wit- 
ness of  the  fact,  canst  give  an  account  of  it.  I  am  happy 
in  the  friend  which  I  have  long  proved.  The  court  who 
gives  currency  to  manners,  ought  to  be  exemplary. 
The  tiger  is  a  beast  of  prey,  who  destroys  without  pity. 
Who  of  these  men  came  to  his  assistance  ?  [§  17,  Obs.  1], 

3.  It  is  the  best  which  can  be  got.  Solomon  was  the 
wisest  man  whom  the  world  ever  saw.  It  is  the  same 
picture  which  you  saw  before.  "And  all  which  beauty, 
all  which  wealth  e'er  gave,  await  alike  the  inevitable 
hour."  The  lady  and  lapdog  which  we  saw  at  the 
window,  have  disappeared.  The  men  and  things  which 
he  has  studied,  have  not  contributed  to  the  improve* 
nient  of  his  morals.  I  who  speak  unto  thee,  am  he. 
Sidney  was  one  of  the  wisest  and  most  active  governors 
which  Ireland  had  enjoyed  for  several  years.  He  has 
committed  the  same  fault  which  I  condemned  yesterday. 

0* 


102  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  §  59 

§  59.     SPECIAL  RULES  AND  OBSERVATIONS  ON  RULE  xi. 

349.  RULE  I.  The  relative,with  its  clause,  should  be  placed  as  near 
as  possible  to  its  antecedent,  to  prevent  ambiguity  ;  thus,  "  The  boy 
beat  his  companion,  whom  every  body  believed  incapable  of  doing 
mischief,"  should  be  "  The  boy,  whom  every  body  believed  in- 
capable of  doing  mischief,  beat  his  companion."     Hence, 

350.  RULE  JI.  When  the  relative  is  preceded  by  two  words  refer- 
ring to  the  same  thing,  one  in  the  subject  and  the  other  in  the 
predicate,  its  proper  antecedent  is  the  one  next  to  it;  as,  Thou  art 
the  man  who  was  engaged  in  that  business. 

351.  Rem.  1.  If  the  relative  in  the  pr  ceding  example  referred  to  thou,  the  seu- 
lence  should  be  arranged  thus,  '"  Thou  who  wast  engaged  in  that  business,  art  the 
man."     In  such  sentences  care  should  always  be  taken  to  ascertain  to  which  • 
word  the  relative  and  its  clause  belongs,  and  to  arrange  the  sentence  accordingly. 
In  this,  the  sense  is  the  only  guide. 

352.  RULE  III.  The  antecedent,  if  a  pronoun  of  the  third  per- 
son, is  often  understood  when  no  emphasis  is  implied  ;  it  is  omitted 
before  what,  and  the  compound  relatives,  whoever,  whosoever,  etc. 
($  16,  Obs.  3.) 

353.  Rem.  2.  The  relative  is  sometimes  understood,  especially  hi  colloquial 
language ;  as,  "  The  friend  I  visited  yesterday,  is  dead  to-day,"  for  "  The  friend 
whom  I  visited,"  &c. 

EXERCISES. 

I.  The  king  dismissed  his  minister,  without  any  in- 
quiry, who  had  never  before  committed  so  unjust  an 
action.     The  soldier  with  a  single   companion,   who 
passed  for  the  bravest  man  in  the  regiment,  offered  his 
services.     Thou  art  a  friend  indeed,  who  hast  relieved 
me  in  this  dangerous  crisis. 

II.  Thou  art  the  friend  that  hast  often  relieved  me, 
and  that  hast  not  deserted  me  now  in  the  time  of  pe- 
culiar need.     I  am  the  man  who  command  you.     I  ana 
the  person  who  adopt  that  sentiment,  and  maintain  it. 
Thou  art  he  who  driedst  up  the  Red  Sea. 

III.  He   whoever   steals   my   purse,   steals   trash 
Those  whom  he  would,  he  slew ;  and  those  whom  he 
would,  he  kept  alive.    The  man  whosoever  committeth 
sin,  is  the  servant  of  sin.     To  them  whomsoever  he 
paw  in  distress,  he  imparted  relief. 


$  60.  SYNTAX.  103 

354.  §  60.  RULE  XII.  Substantives  denoting 
the  same  person  or  thing,  agree  in  case ;  as,  Cicero 
the  Orator. 

Words  thus  used  are  said  to  be  in  apposition 

355.  Words  in  apposition  must  always  be  in  the  same  member  of  the  sen» 
'euce ;  i.  e.  both  in  the  subject  or  both  in  the  predicate. 

356.  Rent.  1.  Two  or  more  nouns,  forming  one  complex  name,  or  a  name  and 
a  title,  with  the  definite  article  and  a  numeral  adjeclive  prefixed,  have  the  plural 
termination  annexed  to  the  last  only;  as,  the  two  Miss  Hays.    The  three  Miss 
Browns.    The  two  Dr.  Monroes. 

357.  Rein.  2.  But  when  used  without  the  numeral,  the  plural  termination  is  an 
nexed  to  ihe  fast ;  as,  Messrs.  Thompson.    Misses  Hamilton.    $  10,  1.    But  of 
marred  ladies,  the  name  only  is  pluralized;  as,  the  Mrs.  Browns. 

358.  Rem.  3.  Distributive  words  are  sometimes  put  in  apposition  with  a  plursk. 
substantive ;  as,  They  stood  each  in  the  other's  way.    In  this  way  is  to  be  re- 
solved the  common  phrase,  "  They  stood  in  each  other's  way."    "  They  loved 
one  another7'  =  they  loved,  one  (loved)  another. 

359.  S.  RULE.  The  word  containing  the  answer  to  a  question^ 
must  always  be  in  the  same  case  with  the  word  that  asks  it  /  as, 
Who  did  that?  /  (did  it).  Whose  books  are  these?  John's. 

EXERCISES. 

The  chief  of  the  princes,  him  who  defied  the  bravest 
of  the  enemy,  was  assassinated  by  a  dastardly  villain. 
He  was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  West,  he  who  pub- 
lished Pindar  at  Oxford. 

(Rem.  1,  2.)  The  two  Misses  Louisa  Howard  are 
very  amiable  young  ladies.  The  two  Messrs.  Websters 
left  town  yesterday.  The  two  Messrs.  Websters  will 
return  to-morrow.  The  Doctors  Stevensons  have  been 
successful  in  performing  a  very  difficult  operation.  The 
two  Doctors  Ramsays  have  returned.  The  Mrs.  Town- 
send  were  there,  as  well  as  the  Mrs.  Bay. 

(S.  RULE.)  Of  whom  were  the  articles  bought?  Of  a 
grocer,  he  who  resides  near  the  Mansion  House.  Was 
any  person  besides  the  grocer  present  ?  Yes,  both  him 
and  his  clerk  were  present.  Who  was  the  money  paid 
to  ?  To  the  grocer.  Who  counted  it  ?  Both  the  clerk 
and  him.  Who  said  that  ?  Me.  Whose  books  are 
these  ?  Her  who  went  out  a  few  minutes  ago. 


104  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  §  61 

360.  §61.  RULE  XIII.  The  predicate  substantive 
after  a  verb,  is  in  the  same  case  as  the  subject  before 
it ;  as,  It  is  /.  I  took  it  to  be  him. 

361.  Rem.  1.  The  verbs  which  connect  the  subject  and  its  predicative  sub- 
stamive  under  this  rale,  are  chiefly  the  verb  to  be,  to  become,  and  some  other 
intransitive  verbs,  and  passive  verbs  of  naming,  choosing,  appointing,  and  the 
like ,  as,  He  shall  be  called  John.  He  became  the  slave  of  passion.   Stephen  died  e 
martyr.  Hence  the  case  of  the  subject  determines  the  case  of  the  predicate. 

362.  Rem.  2.  In  substantive  phrases, the  infinitive  or  participle  of  an  intransitive 
verb  without  a  subject. is  followed  by  a  substantive  or  adjective  taken  indefinitely, 
and  the  substantive  is  in  the  nominative  case  (§  40,  R.  23,  Obs.  2) ;  as,  "  To  be 
the  slave  of  passion,  is  of  all  slavery  the  mo.st  wretched."     "  His  dying  intestate 
caused  all  this  trouble."     "  It  is  our  duty  to  be  obedient  to  our  parents." 

363.  Rem.  3.  In  English  almost  any  verb  may  be  used  as  a  copula  between 
Its  subject  and  an  adjective  as  a  part,  or  at  least  as  a  modification  of  the  predicate ; 
as,  "  It  tastes  good,"  "  The  wind  blows  hard,"    "  I  remember  right,''  "  He 
feels  sick,"  "He  strikes  hard, "  "He  drinks  deep,"  &c.    In  such  expressions 
the  adjective  somewhat  resembles  an  adverb  in  its  use,  and  has  sometimes  been 
parsed  as  such.    It  is,  however,  an  adjective  in  fact  as  well  as  in  form,  and 
qualifies  the  subject,  not  simply  as  a  substantive,  but  as  a  substantive  affected  by, 
or  connected  with  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb.    This  is  a  common  phraseo- 
logy of  our  language,  especially  in  poetry,  and  is  analogous  to  the  Latin  "  insons 
feci,"  <VI  did  it  innocently;"  u  accurrunt  laeti,"  "  they  run  up  joyfully  }} 

EXERCISES. 

It  was  me  who  wrote  the  letter.  Be  not  afraid,  it 
is  me.  I  am  certain  that  it  could  not  have  been  her. 
It  is  them  that  deserve  most  blame.  You  would  un- 
doubtedly act  the  same  part  if  you  were  him.  I  under- 
stood it  to  be  he.  It  may  have  been  him,  but  there  is 
no  proof  of  it.  It  may  have  been  him  or  them  that  did  it. 

Who  do  you  think  him  to  be  ?  Whom  do  men  say 
that  I  am?  She  is  the  person  who  I  understood  it  to 
have  been.  Let  him  be  whom  he  may,  I  am  not  afraid 
of  him.  Was  it  me  that  said  so  ?  It  is  impossible  to 
be  them.  I  am  certain  it  was  not  him. 

Promiscuous  Exercises 

Surely  thou  who  reads  so  much  in  the  Bible,  can  tell 
me  what  became  of  Elijah.  Neither  the  master  nor  the 
scholars  is  here.  Trust  not  him  whom  you  know  is  dis- 
honest. I  love  no  interests  but  that  of  truth  and  virtue 


§  62.  SYNTAX.  105 

364  §  62.  RULE  XIV.  When  two  nouns  come 
together,  denoting  the  possessor  and  the  thing  pos- 
sessed, the  Jirst  is  put  in  the  possessive  case ;  as, 
John's  book ;  on  eagle's  wings. 

Obs.  The  latter  or  governing  substantive  is  frequently  understood ;  as,  I  found 
him  at  the  stationer's  (viz.  shop  or  house). 

365.  Rem.  1.  A  noun  and  its  possessive  pronoun  should  not  be  used  for  the 
possessive ;  thus,  "  A  man  his  ways,"  should  be,  "  A  man's  ways.1' 

366.  Rem.  2.  The  preposition  of,  with  the  objective,  is  generally  equivalent  to 
the  possessive  case,  and  is  often  used  in  preference  to  it.    Thus,  "  In  the  name 
of  the  army,  is  better  than  "  In  the  army's  name."     Sometimes,  however,  these 
two  modes  of  expression  are  not  equivalent;  thus,  u  The  Lord's  day,;'  and  "  The 
day  of  the  Lord,"  convey  ideas  entirely  different. 

367.  Rem.   3.    Sometimes  of  is  used    before  the  possessive  governing  a 
substantive  understood  after  it ;  as,  This  is  a  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's 
(viz.  discoveries).    "  This  is  a  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,"  expresses  the 
same  idea.    These  two  modes  of  expression,  however,  sometimes  convey  quite 
different  ideas;  thus,  "  A  picture  of  my  friend,"  means  a  portrait  of  him;    "  A 
picture  of  my  friend's,"  means  a  picture  belonging  to  him  (App.  XIV).  Under 
both  these  remarks,  it  may  be  observed  as  a  general— 

RULE.  In  the  use  of  the  possessive,  or  of  its  equivalent  of, 
with  the  objective,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  harshness  on  the 
one  hand,  and  ambiguity  on  the  other. 

EXERCISES. 

It  is  Pompeys  pillar.  Seek  Virtues  reward.  A 
mans  manners  frequently  influence  his  fortune.  My 
ancestors  virtue  is  not  mine.  Asa  his  heart  was  perfect 
with  the  Lord.  A  mothers  tenderness  and  a  fathers 
care  are  nature's  gifts  for  mans  advantage.  Helen  her 
beauty  was  the  cause  of  Troy  its  destruction.  Longinus 
his  treatise  on  the  sublime.  For  Christ  his  sake. 

[Rem.  3.]  The  Commons'  vote  was  decidedly  against 
the  measure.  The  Lord's  house  adjourned  at  a  late 
hour.  The  Representative's  house  convened  at  12 
o'clock.  He  married  my  daughter's  husband's  sister. 
She  married  the  brother  of  the  wife  of  my  son.  The 
Lord's  day  will  come  as  a  thief  in  the  night.  The  next 
day  of  the  Lord  came  all  the  people  to  hear  the  word. 
That  is  a  good  likeness  of  De  Witt  Clinton's.  He  is 
the  only  son  of  his*mother's.  The  court's  decision. 
The  report  of  the  sickness  of  the  son  of  the  king  of 
England,  excited  the  nation's  fears. 


106  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  63 

368.      §  63.     OBSERVATIONS  ON  RULE  xir. 

1.  When  several  nouns  come  together  in  the  possessive  cas<», 
implying  common  possession,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  ('s)  is  an- 
nexed to  the  last,  and  understood  to  the  rest  •,  as,  "  Jane  and  Lucy's 
books,1'  i.  e.  books  the  common  property  of  Jane  and  Lucy.  But 
if  common  possession  is  not  implied,  or  if  several  words  intervene, 
the  sign  of  the  possessive  should  be  annexed  to  each-,  as,  u  Jane's 
and  Lucy's  books,"  i.  e.  books,  some  of  which  are  Jane's,  and 
others,  Lucy's.  u  This  gained  the  king's,  as  well  as  the  people's 
approbation." 

2  When  a  name  is  complex,  consisting  of  more  terms  than  one, 
the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  annexed  to  the  last  only-,  as,  "  Julius 
Caesar's  Commentaries."  u  John  the  Baptist's  head."  "  His 
brother  Philip's  wife."  "  The  Bishop  of  London's  charge." 

3.  When  a  short  explanatory  term  is  joined  to  a  name,  the  sign 
of  the  possessive  may  be  annexed  to  either-  as,  I  called  at  Smith's 
the  bookseller,  or,  at  Smith  the  bookseller's.     But  if,   to  such  a 
phrase,   the  governing  substantive  is  added,  the  sign  of  the  pos- 
sessive must  be  annexed  to  the  last;  as,  "I  called  at  Smith  the 
bookseller's  shop." 

4.  If  the  explanatory  circumstance  be  complex,  or  consisting  of 
more  terms  than  one,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  must  be  annexed 
to  the  name  or  first  substantive-,  as,  "This  Psalm  is  David's,  the 
king,    priest,    and    prophet  of  the    people."      uThat  book    is 
Smith's,  the  bookseller  in  Maiden  Lane." 

5.  When  two  nouns  in  the  possessive  are  governed  by  different 
words,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  must  be  annexed  to  each-,  as, 
u  He  took  refuge  at  the  governor's,  the  king's  representative,11 
i.  e.  at  the  "  Governor's  house." 

6.  The  s  after  the  apostrophe  is  omitted,  when  the  first  noun 
has  the  sound  of  s  in  its  last  syllable,  and  the  second  noun  begins 
with  s;  as,  For  righteousness'  sake,  etc.  (§  11,  Obs.  2).    In  other 
cases,  such  omission  would  generally  be  improper-    as,  James 
book,   Miss'  shoes-,   instead  of  James's  book,   Miss's  shoes  (See 
An.  Gr^  175). 

7.  A  clause  of  a  sentence  should  never  come  between  the  pos- 
sessive case  and  the  word  by  which  it  is  governed-,  thus,   "  She 
began  to  extol  the  farmer's,  as  she  called  him,  excellent  under- 
standing," should  be,  uthe  excellent  understanding  of  the  farmer, 
as  she  called  him." 

8.  The  possessive  whosesoever,  and  the  compounds  whichsoever, 
whatsoever ,  howsoever,  are  sometimes  divided  by  interposing  the 
word  to  which  they  belong  -,  as,  whose  jiouse  soever;  what  man 
goever.    This,  in  general,  however,  is  to  be  avoided,  and  to  be  ad- 
mitted only  when  euphony  and  precision  are  thereby  promoted. 


§  63  SYNTAX.  107 

RULE  XIV.  Continued. 

EXERCISES    ON    OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  William's  and  Mary's  reign.    This  is  your  father's, 
mother's  and  brother's  advice.    Peter's,  John's,  and  An- 
drew's occupation  was  that  of  fishermen.     He  asked 
his  father,  as  well  as  his  mother's  advice.     John  and 
Robert's  boots  fit  them  very  well.     The  Betsey  and  the 
Speedwell's  cargoes  were  both  damaged. 

2.  Jack's  the  Giant-killer's  wonderful  exploits.    The 
Bishop's  of  Landaff's  excellent  work.    During  Charles's 
the  second's  reign.     The  Lord  Mayor's  of  London  au- 
thority.    That  carriage  is  the  Lord  Mayor's  of  London. 

3.  The  books  were  left  at  Brown's  the  bookseller's. 
I  left  him  at  Mayell's  the  hatter's  shop.     Thorburn's 
the  seedsman  store  is  now  open. 

4.  The  books  were  left  at  Brown  the  bookseller  and 
stationer's.     I  left  the  parcel  at  Johnson,  a  respectable 
bookseller,  a  worthy  man,  and  an  old  friend's.     I  reside 
at   Lord  Stormont,  my  old  patron  and  benefactor's. 
Whose  glory  did  he  emulate?     He  emulated  Caesar, 
the  greatest  general  of  antiquity's. 

5.  That  book  is  Thompson  the  Tutor's  assistant. 
We  spent  an  hour  at  Wilson  the  Governor's  deputy,  and 
on  our  return  called  at  Mr.  Smith,  little  Henry's  father. 

6.  James'  father  arrived  yesterday,  and  Mr.  Spence5 
servant  came  with  him.    Charles'  books  are  completely 
spoiled.  For  conscience's  sake.  Miss'  books  will  be  sent. 

7.  They  very  justly  condemned  the  prodigal's,  as  he 
was  called,  extravagant  conduct.     This  is  Paul's  the 
Christian  hero  and  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles  advicje. 
Beyond  this  the  arts  can  not  be  traced  of  civil,  society 

PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  ON  THIS  RULE. 

The  Emperor  and  the  dukes  cavalry  were  engaged. 
This  is  for  consciences  sake.  Escape  Atrides  ire.  He 
bought  the  articles  at  Wilson's  the  druggist's.  William 
and  John's  wives  were  present.  The  estate  of  William'p 
was  much  encumbered. 


108  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  64 

369.  §  64.  RULE  XV.  When  the  present  or  per- 
feet  participle  is  used  as  a  noun  (195),  a  substantive 
before  it  is  put  in  the  possessive  case ;  as,  "Much, 
depends  on  the  pupil's  composing  frequently;  his 
having  done  so  is  evident. 

370.  Obs.  A  pronoun  in  this  construction  must  be  the  possessive  pronoun,  nol 
the  possessive  case;  as,  Much  depends  on  your  composing,   &c.,  nol  yours. 

371.  Rem.  1.  If  the  participle  is  not  used  as  a  noun,  the  noun  or  pronoun  be. 
fore   it  may  be  in  any  case  which  the  construction  requires ;  as,  "  I  see  men 
walking."   These  two  modes  of  expression,  in  many  cases,  convey  very  different 
ideas,  and  therefore  care  should  be  taken  not  to  confound  them ;  thus,  "  What 
do  you  think  of  my  horse  running  to-day?"  means,  Do  you  think  I  should  let 
him  run?    But,  "  What  do  you  think  of  my  horse's  running  to-day?"  means, 
he  has  run,  do  you  think  he  ran  well? 

372.  Rem.  2.  The  present  participle,  with  a  possessive  before  it,  sometimes 
admits  of  after  it,  and  sometimes  not.      Here  the  sense  must  guide. 

373.  Rem.  3.  When  a  preposition  or  infinitive  follows  the  participle,  of  is  inad- 
missible;  as,  His  depending  on  promises,  proved  his  ruin.    His  neglecting  to 
study  when  young,  rendered  him  ignorant  all  his  life. 

EXERCISES. 

What  is  the  reason  of  this  person  dismissing  his  ser 
vant  so  hastily?  I  remember  it  being  done?  This  jea- 
lousy accounts  for  Hall  charging  the  Duke  of  Gloucester 
with  the  murder  of  Prince  Edward.  He  being  a  great 
man,  did  not  make  him  a  happy  man.  Much  depends 
on  the  rule  being  observed.  Richard  observing  the  rule, 
will  be  the  means  of  him  avoiding  error.  What  do  you 
think  of  my  horse  running  to-day  ?  did  he  run  well  ? 
Man  rebelling  against  his  Maker  brought  him  into  ruin. 
A  man  being  poor,  does  not  make  him  miserable. 

[Rem.  1.]  That  man's  running  so  fast,  is  in  danger 
of  falling.  A  youth's  pursuing  his  studies  with  dili- 
gence and  perseverance,  can  hardly  fail  of  success. 

[Rem.  2.]  Our  approving  their  bad  conduct  may  en- 
courage them  to  become  worse.  For  his  avoiding  that 
precipice,  he  is  indebted  to  his  friend's  care.  Their 
observing  the  rules  prevented  errors.  By  his  studying 
of  the  scriptures,  he  became  wise.  Their  condemning 
of  the  innocent  and  acquitting  of  the  guilty  will  cove* 
them  with  infamy. 


§  65.  SYNTAX.  109 

374  §  65.  RULE  XVI.  When  the  present  partici- 
ple, used  as  a  noun,  has  an  article  before  it,  it  should 
have  the  preposition  of  after  it ;  as,  In  the  keeping 
7f  his  commandments  there  is  a  great  reward. 

375.  Rem.  I.  The  sense  will  often  be  the  same,  if  both  the  article  and  the  pre. 
yosition  be  omitted ;  but  the  one  should  not  be  omitted  without  the  other ;  thus, 
'{ In  keeping  his  commandments,"  £c. 

37G.  Rem.  2.  In  some  cases,  however,  these  two  modes  express  very  different 
/leas,  and  therefore  attention  to  the  sense  is  necessary;  as,  "  He  confessed  the 
whole  in  the  hearing  of  three  witnesses,  and  the  court  spent  an  hour  in  hearing 
their  deposition."  To  prevent  ambiguity  in  such  cases,  observe  the  following 

377.  RULE.  When  the  participle  expresses  something  of  which 
the  noun  following  is  the  doer^  it  should  have  the  article  and  pre- 
position ;  as,  u  It  was  said  in  the  hearing  of  the  witness."  When 
it  expresses  something  of  which  the  noun  following  is  not  the  doer^ 
but  the  object,  both  should  be  omitted;  as,  uthe  Court  spent  some 
fcime  in  hearing  the  witness." 

378.  Rem.  3.  When  a  preposition  follows  the  participle  so  that  q/'can  not  be 
used  (373),  and  yet  an  article  is  required  before  it,  it  is  generally  better  to  adopt 
a  different  mode  of  expression ;  thus,  <(  The  not  attending  to  duty:"  better,  "flie 
want  of  attention  to  duty." 

EXERCISES. 

Learning  of  languages  is  very  difficult.  The  learning 
any  thing  speedily,  requires  great  application.  By  the 
exercising  our  faculties,  they  are  improved.  By  ob- 
serving of  these  rules,  you  will  avoid  mistakes.  By 
the  obtaining  wisdom,  thou  wilt  command  esteem. 
This  was  a  betraying  the  trust  reposed  in  him.  The 
not  attending  to  this  rule,  is  the  cause  of  a  very  com- 
mon error.  He  confined  all  his  philosophy  to  the  suf- 
fering ills  patiently.  This  order  so  critically  given, 
occasioned  the  gaining  the  battle.  This  was,  in  fact, 
converting  the  deposites  to  his  own  use.  Propriety  of 
pronunciation  is  the  giving  to  a  word  its  proper  sound. 
'(Rein.  2.)  At  hearing  the  ear  they  shall  obey.  Be- 
cause of  provoking  his  sons  and  daughters,  the  Lord 
abhorred  them.  He  expressed  the  pleasure  he  had  in 
the  hearing  of  the  philosopher.  In  the  hearing  of  the 
will  read,  and  in  the  examining  of  sundry  papers 
much  time  was  spent. 
10  • 


110  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  §  66. 

379.  §  66.  RULE  XVII.   The  past  participle,  and 
not  the  past  tense,  should  be  used  after  the  verbs 
HAVE  and  BE  ;   as,   I  have  written  (not,  I   have 
wrote).     I  am  chosen. 

380.  S.  RULE.   The  past  participle  should  not  be  used  instead 
of  the  past  tense;  thus,  it  is  improper  to  say,  u  he  begun,"  for 
"he  began-,"  "he  run,"  for  uhe  ran-,"  "he  done,"  for  "he  did  j" 
"  he  seen,"  for  "  he  saw." 

381.  Rem.  The  present  participle  active,  and  not  the  past,  is  used  after  the 
verb  to  be,  to  express  the  continued  suffering  of  an  action;  as,  "  The  house  ij 
building)"  not  u  being  built."  When  the  participle  in  ing  has  not  a  passive 
sense,  the  idea  must  be  expressed  by  means  of  the  active  voice.  Tims  we  do 
not  say,  "  the  book  is  now  reading,"  (nor  "  the  book  is  now  being  read,")  bui 
"  he  (or  she,  &c.)  is  now  reading  the  book"  (190).  See  also  App.  XIX. 

EXERCISES. 

I  would  have  wrote  a  letter,  He  had  mistook  his 
true  interest.  The  coat  had  ho  seam,  but  was  wove 
throughout.  The  French  language  is  spoke  in  every 
part  of  Europe.  His  resolution  was  too  strong  to  be 
shook  by  slight  opposition.  The  horse  was  stole  from 
the  pasture.  They  have  chose  the  part  of  honor  and 
virtue.  She  was  shewed  into  the  drawing  room.  He 
has  broke  the  bottle.  Some  fell  by  the  way  side  and 
was  trode  down.  The  work  was  very  well  execute. 
He  has  chose  to  ride.  He  has  drunk  too  much.  I  am 
almost  froze.  He  has  forsook  us.  It  was  well  wrote. 

S.  R.  By  too  eager  pursuit,  he  run  a  great  risk  of  be- 
ing disappointed.     He  soon  begun  to  weary  of  having 
nothing  to  do.  He  was  greatly  heated,  and  drunk  with 
avidity.      The    bending  hermit  here  a  prayer  begun. 
And  end  with  sorrows  as  they  first  begun. 
A  second  deluge  learning  thus  o'er-run, 
And  the  Monks  finished  what  the  Goths  begun. 

These  men  done  more  than  could  have  been  expected. 
There  can  be  no  mistake,  for  I  seen  them  do  it. 

[Rem.]  The  work  was  then  being  printed,  and  it  was 
expected  to  be  published  in  a  few  days.  That  house  has 
been  being  built  for  six  months ;  it  is  now  being  plas- 
tered, and  will  be  finished  soon. 


§67  SYNTAX.  HI 

382.  §  67.  RULE  XVIII.  The  infinitive  mood 
Is  governed  by  VERBS,  NOUNS,  or  ADJECTIVES  ;  a#, 
I  desire  to  learn — A  desire  to  learn — desirous  to 
learn. 

SPECIAL   RULES. 

383.  I.    One  verb  being  the  subject  of  another ,  is  put  in  the  in- 
finitive ;  as    "  To  study  is  profitable." 

384.  II.      One  verb  governs  another  as  its  object  in  the  infini- 
tive; as,  Boys  love  to  play. 

385.  III.   The  infinitive  is  used  to  express  the  purpose,  end,  or 
design,  of  a  preceding  act;  as,   "Some  who  came  to  scoff,  re- 
mained to  pray." 

386.  IV.  In  comparisons,  the  infinitive  is  put  after  so  —  ast 
too,  or  than-,  as,  "Be  so  good  as  to  read  this  letter." 

387.  V.    To,  the   sign  of  the  infinitive,  is  not  used  after  tht 
verbs  bid,  dare,  need,  make,  see,  hear,  feel,  and  let  in  the  active 
voice,  nor  after  let  in  the  passive.    (See  An.  Gram.  878.) 

Also  sometimes  after  perceive,  behold,  observe,  have,  and  know. 

388.  Rem.  1.  The  infinitive,  as  the  subject  or  the  object  of  a  verb,  may  have  a 
subject  of  its  own  in  the  objective ;  as,  For  us  to  lie  is  base.    I  wished  him  to  go. 

389.  Rem.  2.  The  infinitive  may  be  considered  as  a  verbal  noun  having  the  no. 
minative  and  accusative.    It  is  used  after  the  preposition  about ;  as,  About  to  de- 
part ;  and  it  is  sometimes  independent ;  as,  To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  in  fault. 

EXERCISES. 

Strive  learn.  They  obliged  him  do  it.  Newton  did 
not  wish  obtrude  his  discoveries  on  the  public.  His 
penetration  and  diligence  seemed  vie  with  each  other. 

V.  They  need  not  to  call  upon  her.  I  dare  not  to 
proceed  so  hastily.  I  have  seen  some  young  persons  to 
conduct  themselves  very  discreetly.  He  bade  me  to  go 
home.  It  is  the  difference  of  their  conduct  which  makes 
us  to  approve  the  one  and  to  reject  the  other.  We 
heard  the  thunder  to  roll.  He  felt  the  pain  to  abate. 
I  would  have  you  to  take  more  care.  He  was  reluc- 
tantly made  obey.  They  were  heard  say  it  in  a  large 
company.  They  were  seen  pass  the  house.  He  was 
let  to  go.  I  have  observed  some  satirist  to  use  the  term. 


112  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  6S 

390.  §  68.  RULE  XIX.  1.  When  doubt  and  fu- 
turity are  both  implied,  the  subjunctive  mood  is  used ; 
as,  Though  he  fall  (hereafter),  he  shall  rise  again. 

2.  Wlien  doubt  only,  and  not  futurity,  is  implied, 
the  indicative  is  used;  as,  If  he  speaks  (i.  e.  now) 
as  he  thinks,  he  may  be  safely  trusted. 

391.  Remark.  Doubt  is  usually  expressed  by  the  conjunctions  (f}  though,  unless, 
except,  whether.  Sec.  Whether  futurity  is  implied  or  not,  must  be  ascertained 
from  the  context.  In  accurate  composition,  of  course,  the  mood  employed  will 
direct  to  the  meaning  of  the  sentence ;  thus,  "  I  will  do  it  if  the  master  desires 
me"  (i.  e.  at  present).  Here  there  is  uncertainty  only  whether  he  does  dasire  me. 
"  I  will  do  it  if  the  master  desire  me"  (i.  e.  at  a  future  time).  Here  there  is  un- 
certainty whether  he  will  desire  me  or  not.  Consequently  there  is  both  doubt  and 
futurity.  If  and  though,  when  referring  to  what  is  fixed  and  certain,  are 
equivalent  to  "notwithstanding,"  and  consequently  the  verb  follows  in  the  in- 
dicative ;  as,  "  Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  your  sakes  he  became  poor." 

392.  RULE  I.  Lest,  and  that,  annexed  to  a  command,  require 
the  subjunctive  mood  ;  as,  Love  not  sleep,  lest  thou  come  to  pover- 
ty.   Take  heed  that  thou  speak  not  to  Jacob,  either  good  or  bad. 

393.  RULE  II.   If,  with  but  following  it,  when  futurity  is  deno- 
ted, requires  the  subjunctive  mood ;  as,  If  he  do  but  touch  the 
hills,  they  shall  smoke.      When  future  time  is  not  expressed,  the 
indicative  ought  to  be  used. 

394.  The  subjunctive  were,  wert,  is  used  to  express  a  wish  or  desire ;  as,  I  wish 
that  I  were,  at  home.  O  that  they  were  wise. 

EXERCISES. 

If  a  man  smites  his  servant  and  he  die,  he  shall  surely 
be  put  to  death.  If  he  acquires  riches,  they  will  corrupt 
his  mind.  Though  he  be  high,  he  hath  respect  to  the 
lowly.  If  thou  live  virtuously,  thou  art  happy.  If  he 
does  promise,  he  will  certainly  perform.  0  that  his 
heart  was  tender.  If  he  is  at  home  to-morrow,  give 
him  the  letter.  0,  that  thou  wast  as  my  brother ! 

(S.  Rule  1.)  Despise  not  any  condition,  lest  it  hap- 
pens to  be  thy  own.  Let  him  that  is  sanguine  take 
heed  lest  he  miscarries.  See  that  thou  speakest  truth. 

(S.  Rule  II.)  If  he  is  but  discreet,  he  will  succeed. 
If  he  be  but  in  health,  I  am  content.  If  he  does  but 
intimate  his  desire,  it  will  produce  obedience. 


§  69.  SYNTAX.  113 

395.  §  69.  RULE  XX.  1.  Conjunctions  connect 
words  or  sentences  (241). 

2.  Conjunctions  couple  the  same  moods  and  tenses 
of  verbs,  and  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns;  as,  Do 
good,  and  seek  peace.  He  and  /are  well. 

396.  Rem.  1.  Verbs  in  the  same  mood  and  tense,  connected  by  a  conjunction, 
must  also  be  in  the  same  form.     For  the  different  forms  of  the  verb,  see  $  27. 

397.  Rem.  2.  WH^n  conjunctions  connect  different  moods  and  tenses,  or  when 
a  contrast  is  stated  with  but.,  not,  though,  &c.,  the  nominative  is  frequently  re 
peated ;  as.  You  can  not  ride,  but  you  may  walk. 

Note.  This  is  to  be  regarded  only  as  a  general  direction,  and  is  violated  nearly 
as  often  as  it  is  observed. 

398.  Rem.  3.  After  verbs  of  doubting,  fearing  and  denying,  the  conjunction 
that  should  be  used,  and  not  kst,  but,  but  that;  as,  You  do  not  doubt  that  he  ia 
honest;  They  feared  that  they  would  not  return;  You  do  not  derv  that  he  has 
some  ability.     That  is  frequently  understood;  as,  We  were  desirous  (that)  you 
would  return. 

399.  Rem.  4.  The  relative  usually  follows  than  in  the  objective  case,  even  when 
the  nominative  goes  before ;  as,  "Alfred,  than  whom  a  greater  king  never  reigned." 
This  anomaly  it  is  difficult  to  explain.     Most  probably  than  at  first  had  the  force 
of  a  preposition,  which  it  now  retains  only  when  followed  by  the  relative. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  He  reads  and  wrote  well.     Anger  glances  into  the 
breast  of  a  wise  man  but  will  rest  only  in  the  bosom  of 
fools.     If  he  understand  the  subject  and  attends  to  it,he 
can  scarcely  fail  of  success.     Professing  regard  and  to 
act  differently  marks  a  base  mind. 

2.  He  or  me  must  go.    Neither  he  nor  her  can  attend. 
You  and  us  enjoy  many  privileges.     My  father  and  him 
were  very  intimate.     He  is  taller  than  me.     I  am  not 
so  wise  as  him.    She  was  six  years  older  than  me.    You 
may  as  lawfully  preach  as  them  that  do. 

Rem.  1.  We  often  overlook  the  blessings  we  possess, 
and  are  searching  after  those  which  are  out  of  our  reach. 
Did  he  not  tell  thee  his  fault,  and  entreated  thee  to 
forgive  him? 

2.  Rank  may  confer  influence,  but  will  not  necessarily 
produce  virtue.     She  was  proud  though  now  humble. 
He  is  not  rich  but  respectable. 

3.  We  can  not  question  but  this  confederacy  must 
have  been  a  source  of  friendship  and  attachment.     We 
were  apprehensive  lest  some  accident  had  happened. 

10* 


114  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §70 

400.  §  70.  RULE  XXL  Some  conjunctions  and 
adverbs  have  their  corresponding  connectives  ;  thus, 

Neither  requires  nor  after  it;  as,  Neither  he  nor  his  brother  was  in. 

Though, yet;  as,  Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  our  sakes,  &c. 

Whether, or;         Whether  he  go  or  stay. 

Either,    or;        I  will  either  write  or  send. 

As,          •  as;        (expressing  equality)  Mine  is  as  good  as  yours. 

As,          so;        (expressing  equality)  As  the  stars,  so  shall  thy  seed  be 

So,  as ;  (with  a  negative,  expressing  inequality)  He  is  not  so 

wise  as  his  brother. 

So,  •  that ;  (expressing  consequence)  I  am  so  weak  that  I  can  not 

walk. 

Not  only, but  also  ;  Not  only  his  property,  but  also  his  life  was  in  dan- 
ger. 

If,  then  ;    (in  reasoning)  If  he  can  do  it,  then  he  will  do  it. 

Note.  As  and  50, in  either  member  of  a  compariso^are  properly  adverbs,  §  34,  4. 

Note.  The  Poets  frequently  use  Or— or,  for  Either— or;  and  Nor—  nor,  for  Nei 
ther — nor.  In  prose,  Not — nor,  is  often  used  for  Neither — nor.  The  yet  after 
though  is  often  properly  suppressed.  Or  does  not  require  either  before,  when  the 
one  word  is  a  mere  explanation  of  the  other ;  as,  It  is  six  feet,  or  one  fathom  deep. 
In  other  cases,  when  either  is  not  used,  it  may  be  supplied. 

EXERCISES. 

It  is  neither  cold  or  hot.  It  is  so  clear  as  I  need  not 
explain  it.  The  relations  are  so  uncertain  as  that  they 
require  much  examination.  The  one  is  equally  deserving 
as  the  other.  I  must  be  so  candid  to  own  that  I  have 
been  mistaken.  He  would  not  do  it  himself,  nor  let  me 
do  it.  He  was  as  angry  as  he  could  not  speak.  So  as 
thy  days,  so  shall  thy  strength  be.  Though  he  slay  me, 
so  will  I  trust  in  him.  He  must  go  himself,  or  send  his 
servant.  There  is  no  condition  so  secure  as  it  can  not 
admit  of  change.  He  is  not  as  eminent  and  as  much 
esteemed  as  he  thinks  himself  to  be.  Neither  despise 
the  poor, or  envy  the  rich;  for  the  one  dieth  so  as  the 
other.  As  far  as  I  am  able  to  judge,  the  book  is  well 
written.  His  raiment  was  so  white  as  snow.  He  must  be 
as  candid  as  to  say  so.  There  was  no  man  so  sanguine, 
who  did  not  apprehend  some  ill  consequences.  The  dog 
in  the  manger  would  not  eat  the  hay  himself,  nor  suffer 
the  ox  to  do  it.  He  was  so  fat,  he  could  hardly  walk. 
NeLher  despise  or  oppose  what  thou  dost  not  under- 
stand* 


$  71.  SYNTAX.  115 

401.  §  71.   RULE  XX11.     The  comparative  de- 
gree and  the  pronoun  other  require  than  after  them, 
and  such  requires  as ;  as,  Greater  than  I ;  No  other 
lhan  he  ;  Such  as  do  well. 

NOTE.  Sweft,  meaning  a  consequence,  or  so  great,  requires  that  after  it. 

402.  S.RULE.  When  tivo  objects  are  compared,  the.  comparative  is 
generally  used;  but  when  more  than  two,   the  superlative;  as, 
James  is  older  than  John.     Mary  is  the  wisest  of  them  all. 

403.,  Rem.  1.  Sometimes,  However,  the  superlative  is  used  when  only  two 
objects  are  compared,  viz.  when  it  is  more  agreeable  to  the  ear,  and  when  it  can 
not  injure  the  sense ;  as,  He  is  the  weakest  of  the  two. 

404.  Rem.  2.  A  comparison  in  which  more  than  two  are  concerned,  may  be  ex- 
pressed by  the  comparative  as  well  as  by  the  superlative^  and  in  some  cases  bet. 
ter;  but  the  comparative  considers  the  objects  compared  as  belonging  to  different 
classes,  while  the  superlative  compares  them  as  included  in  one  class.  The  com. 
parative  is  used  thus  :  "  Greece  was  more  polished  than  any  other  nation  of  an. 
tiquity."  Here  Greece  stands  by  herself,  as  opposed  to  the  other  nations  of  an- 
tiquity. She  was  none  of  the  other  nations  :  she  was  more  polished  than  they. 
The  same  idea  is  expressed  by  the  superlative  when  the  word  other  is  left  out: 
thus,  "  Greece  was  the  most  polished  nation  of  antiquity."  Here,  to  Greece  is 
assigned  the  highest  place  in  the  class  of  objects  among  which  she  is  numbered— 
the  nations  of  antiquity :  she  is  one  of  thenir  This  distinction  should  be  carefully 
observed.  The  comparative  is  sometimes  used  in  the  same  way ;  as,  He  is  the 
taller  of  the  two. 

EXERCISES. 

He  has  little  more  of  the  scholar  besides  the  name. 
Be  ready  to  succour  such  persons  who  need  thy  assist- 
ance. They  had  no  sooner  risen,  but  they  applied  them- 
selves to  their  studies.  These  savage  people  seemed  to 
have  no  other  element  but  war.  Such  men  that  act 
treacherously,  ought  to  be  avoided.  He  gained  nothing 
farther  by  his  speech,  but  only  to  be  commended  for 
his  eloquence.  This  is  none  other  but  the  gate  of  Pa- 
radise. Such  sharp  replies  that  cost  him  his  life.  To 
trust  in  him,  is  no  more  but  to  acknowledge  his  power. 
.(S.  R.)  James  is  the  wisest  of  the  two.  Of  the  three, 
Jane  is  the  weaker.  [Rem.  2.]  Chimborazo  is  higher 
than  any  other  mountain  in  Europe.  Eve  was  the  fair- 
est of  all  her  daughters.  I  understood  him  the  best  of 
all  others  who  spoke  on  the  subject.  Solomon  was 
wiser  than  any  of  the  ancient  kings.  China  has  a 
greater  population  than  any  nation  on  earth. 


116  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  72, 

405.  §  72.  RULE  XXIII.  Double  comparatives 
and  superlatives  are  improper ;  thus,  better,  best, 
not  more  better,  most  best. 

Rem.  The  double  comparative  lesser,  however,  is  sanctioned  by  good  au« 
thority  ;  as,  "  Lesser  Asia,';  "  Every  lesser  tiling." — N.  Y.  Review. 

Obs.  It  is  improper  to  compare  adjectives  whose  signification  does  not  admit  of 
increase  or  diminution  [$  13,  Obs.  4].  Of  this  kind  are  true,  perfect)  universal, 
ch*ef,  extreme}  supreme,  &c.,  which  have  in  themselves  a  superlative  sense. 
When  comparison  of  these  and  similar  words  is  admitted,  as  is  sometimes  done 
(§  13,  Obs.  4  Rem.),  they  must  be  understood  in  a  limited  senso.  Such  adjectives 
as  superior,  inferior,  etc.,  though  they  imply  comparison,  are  not  in  the  comparsu 
live  degree,  and  are  never  construed  as  such,  but  have  to  after  them. 

EXERCISES. 

It  argued  the  most  sincerest  candor  to  make  suet  in 
acknowledgment.  After  the  most  strictest  sect  of  our 
religion,  I  lived  a  Pharisee.  He  always  posses  ;d  a 
more  serener  temper.  It  is  more  easier  to  built  two 
chimneys,  than  to  maintain  one.  The  tongue  is  ke  a 
race  horse,  which  runs  the  faster  the  lesser  weight  it 
carries.  The  nightingale's  voice  is  the  most  sweetest. 

His  assertion  was  most  untrue.  His  work  was  per- 
fect, his  brother's  more  perfect,  and  his  father's  the 
most  perfect  of  all.  Virtue  confers  the  supremest  dig- 
nity on  man,  and  should  be  his  chiefest  desire.  His 
most  extreme  vanity  renders  him  most  supremely  ridi- 
culous. This  is  more  inferior  than  that,  though  it  is 
more  superior  than  many  others. 

Promiscuous.  The  great  power  and  force  of  custom 
forms  another  argument  against  bad  company.  And 
Joshua  he  shall  go  over  before  thee.  If  thou  be  the 
king  of  the  Jews,  save  thyself.  The  people  there- 
fore that  was  with  him  when  he  raised  Lazarus  out  of 
his  grave,  bare  record.  Public  spirit  is  a  more  univer- 
sal principle  than  a  sense  of  honour.  I  see  you  have  a 
new  pair  of  gloves  [§  86,  7],  Five  years  interest  were 
demanded.  In  all  his  works  is  sprightlmess  and  vigour. 
The  returns  of  kindness  is  sweet,  and  there  are  neither 
honour  nor  virtue  in  resisting  them. 

How  rarely  reason  guides  the  stubborn  choice  5 
Rule  the  bold  hand,  or  prompt  the  suppliant  voice, 


§  73.  SYNTAX.  117 

406.  §  73.  RULE  XXIV.  1.  Adverbs  modify  verbs, 
adjectives,  and  other  adverbs  (§  33). 

2.  Adverbs  should  not  be  used  as  adjectives ;  thus 
"  Thine  often  infirmities,"  should  be  "  Thy  fre- 
quent infirmities." 

407.  Rem.  1.  From,  strictly  speaking,  should  not  be  used  before  hence,  thence 
and  whence,  because  it  is  implied.    Custom,  however,  has  so  far  sanctioned  the 
violation  of  this  rules,  that  a  strict  adherence  to  it  would  now  appear  stiff  and 
affected. 

408.  Rem.  2.  After  verbs  of  motion ,  hither •,  thither,  and  whither,  are  now  used 
only  on  solemn  occasions.    In  other  cases,  the  adverbs  here,  there,  and  wheret 
are  employed ;  as,  He  came  here  /  We  rode  there. 

409.  Rem.  3.   Where  should  not  be  used  for  in  which,  unless  the  reference  is 
to  place;  thus,  "  A  protestation  where,"  should  be  "  A  protestation  in  which." 
So  is  often  used  to  represent  an  adjective,  a  noun,  or  a  whole  sentence ;  as,  They 
are  rich,  we  are  not  so.    He  is  a  good  scholar,  and  I  told  you  so. 

410.  Rem.  4.  The  adverbs  now,  then,    when,  where,  in  such  phrases  as  till 
now,  till  then,  since  when,  to  where,  Sec.,  are  sometimes  used  by  good  writers  as 
nouns.     This,  however,  is  inaccurate,  and  should  not  be  imitated. 

411.  Rem.  5.  There,  properly  an  adverb  of  place,  is  often  used  as  a  mere  in- 
troductory expletive  to  the  verb,  when  the  nominative  follows  it ;  as,  "  There  are 
men  who  can  not  read ;"  "  There  came  to  the  beach.1'     (See  §  34,  8.) 

412.  Rem.  6.  Only,  solely,  chief  y,  merely,  too,  also,  and  perhaps  a  few  others, 
are  sometimes  joined  to  substantives  ;    as,    Not  only  the  men,  but  the  women 
also  were  innocent. 

EXERCISES. 

They  hoped  for  a  soon  and  prosperous  issue  to  the 
war.  He  was  befriended  by  the  then  reigning  Duke. 
Some  of  my  then  hearers  urged  me  to  publish  these 
lectures.  Our  friends  arrived  safely. 

Rem.  1.  From  whence  come  ye?  He  departed  from 
thence  into  a  desert  place.  I  Mill  send  thee  far  from 
hence  to  the  Gentiles.  Where  art  thou  gone  ?  The  city 
is  near,  0  let  me  escape  there.  Where  I  am,  there  ye 
can  not  come.  From  whence  we  may  likewise  date 
the  period  of  this  event.  He  walked  thither  in  less  than 
an  hour. 

3.  He  drew  up  a  petition  where  he  represented  his 
own  merit.  He  went  to  London  last  year,  since  when 
I  have  not  seen  him.  The  situation  where  I  found  him 


1 18  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  §  74. 

413.  §74.  RULE  XXV.  Adverbs  are  for  the  most 
part  placed  before  adjectives,  after  a  verb  in  the 
simple  form,  and  after  the  Jlrst  auxiliary  in  the 
compound  form ;  as,  He  is  very  attentive,  behaves 
well,  and  is  much  esteemed. 

414.  Obs.  1.  This  is  to  be  considered  only  as  a  general  rule,  to  which  there  are 
many  exceptions.     Indeed,  no  rule  for  the  position  of  the  adverb  can  be  given, 
which   is  not  liable  to  exceptions.     That  order  is  the  best  which  conveys  tho 
meaning  with  most  precision.     In  order  to  this,  the  adverb  is  sometimes  placed 
before  the  verb,  or  at  some  distance  after  it.    Never,  often,  ahvays,  sometimes, 
generally  precede  the  verb.     Not.  with  the  present  participle,  should  generally 
be  placed  before  it.     Enough  follows  the  adjective,  and  sometimes  both  follow 
the  noun;  thus,  a  solid  enough  reason,  or,  a  reason  solid  enough. 

415.  Obs.  2.     The  improper  position  of  the  adverb  only,  often  occasions  ambi- 
guity.   This  will  generally  be  avoided  when  it  refers  to  a  sentence  or  clause,  by 
placing  it  at  the  beginning  of  that  sentence  or  clause ;  when  it  refers  to  a  predi. 
cate,  by  placing  it  before  the  predicating  term;  and  when  it  refers  to  a  subject, 
by  placing  it  after  its  name  or  description;  as,  "  On ly  acknowledge  thine  ini 
quity;'7  "  The  thoughts  of  his  heart  are  onJy  evil;;'  "  Take  nothing  for  you? 
/ourney  but  a  staff  only."    These  observations  will  generally  be  applicable  to  th« 
words  merely,  solely,  chiefly,  Jirst,  at  least,  and  perhaps  to  a  few  others. 

416    Obs.  3.    Ever  and  never  are  sometimes  improperly  confounded- 

EXERCISES. 

We  should  not  be  overcome  totally  by  present  events. 
He  unaffectedly  and  forcibly  spoke,  and  was  heard  at- 
tentively by  the  whole  assembly.  It  can  not  be  imper- 
tinent or  ridiculous,  therefore,  to  remonstrate.  Not 
only  he  found  her  employed,  but  pleased  and  tranquil 
also.  In  the  proper  disposition  of  adverbs,  the  ear 
carefully  requires  to  be  consulted  as  well  as  the  sense. 

(Obs.  1.)  The  women  contributed  all  their  rings  and 
jewels  voluntarily  to  assist  the  government.  Having 
not  known,  or  having  not  considered  the  measures 
proposed,  he  failed  of  success.  He  was  determined  to 
invite  back  the  king,  and  to  call  together  his  friends. 

(Obs.  2.)  Theism  can  only  be  opposed  to  polytheism. 
By  greatness,  I  do  not  only  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single 
object;  but  the  largeness  of  a  whole  view.  Only  you 
have  I  known,  of  all  the  nations  of  the  earth.  In  using 
every  exertion  in  our  power  for  the  public  good,  we 
only  discharge  our  duty. 


§  75.  .  SYNTAX.  119 

417.  §  75.  RULE  XXVI.  Two  negatives  in  the 
same  sentence  are  improper,  unless  we  mean  to  affirm; 
thus,  "I  can  not  by  no  means  allow  it,"  should  be, 
"  I  cannot  by  any" — or  "  I  can  by  no  means  allow  it." 

The  reason  of  this  rule  is,  that  one  negative  destroys  another,  or  is  equivalent 
to  an  affirmative. 

418.  Rem.  1.  Sometimes  two  negatives  are  intended  to  affirm;  and  in  this 
case,  if  one  of  them,  such  as  dis-,  in-,  ira-,  un-,  &c.  is  prefixed  to  another  word, 
a  pleasing  and  delicate  variety  of  expression  is  produced ;  as,  "  Nor  was  the  king 
unacquainted  with  his  designs,"  i.  e.  he  "  was  acquainted  with  them."    But  if 
the  negative  consists  of  two  separate  and  detached  words,  the  expression  is  ge- 
aerally  harsh  and  inelegant;  as,  "Nor  have  I  no  money  which  I  can  spare,'' 
>.  e.  "  I  have  money  which  I  can  spare." 

419.  Rem.  2.  In  sentences  containing  double  negatives,  the  intervention  of 
only,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  distinct  clause,  preserves  the  negation ;  as,  "  He 
was  not  only  illiberal,  but  he  was  covetous." 

420.  Note.  The  English  language  in  this  respect  agrees  with  the  Latin,  but 
differs  from  the  Greek  and  French,  in  both  of  which,  two  negatives  with  the  same 
subject  render  the  negation  stronger. 

EXERCISES. 

I  can  not  drink  no  more.  He  can  not  do  nothing. 
He  will  never  be  no  taller.  Covet  neither  riches  nor 
honors,  nor  no  such  perishing  things.  Do  not  interrupt 
me  thyself,  nor  let  no  one  disturb  me.  I  am  resolved 
not  to  comply  with  the  proposal,  neither  at  present  nor 
at  any  other  time.  I  have  received  no  information  on 
the  subj  ect,  neither  from  him  nor  from  his  friend.  There 
can  not  be  nothing  more  insignificant  than  vanity.  Nor 
is  danger  apprehended  in  such  a  government,  no  more 
than  we  commonly  apprehend  danger  from  thunder  or 
earthquakes.  Never  no  imitator  came  up  to  his  author. 

PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES. 

James  and  I  am  cousins.  Thy  father's  merits  sets 
thee  forth  to  view.  That  it  is  our  duty  to  be  pious,  ad- 
mit not  of  any  doubt.  If  he  becomes  rich,  he  may  be 
less  industrious.  It  was  wrote  extempore.  Romulus, 
which  founded  Rome,  killed  his  brother  Remus.  He  in- 
volved in  a  troublesome  lawsuit,  a  friend  which  had  al- 
ways supported  him.  Who  of  you  convinceth  me  of  sin. 
I  treat  you  as  a  boy  who  love  to  learn,  and  are  ambi- 
tious of  receiving  instruction. 


120  CtNGLlSH    GRAMMAR.  §76 

421.  §  76.  RULE  XXVII.  Appropriate  preposi- 
tions must  be  used  before  names  of  places ;  thus, 

To— -is  used  after  a  verb  of  motion ;  as,  He  went  to  Spain.    But  it  is  omitted 

before  home;  as,  He  went  home  yesterday  (307). 

In — is  used  before  names  of  countries  and  large  cities;  as,  He  lives  in  Albany, 
in  the  State  of  New- York.  But  at  is  used  before  the  names  of  places 
and  large  cities,  after  the  verbs  touch,  arrive,  land,  and  frequently  after 
the  verb  to  be;  as,  He  arrived  at  Liverpool — touched  at  New- York— : 
landed  at  New. Orleans.  I  was  at  New*. York. 
M — is  used  before  the  names  of  houses,  towns,  and  foreign  cities ;  as,  He  is 

at  home.    He  resides  at  the  Mansion  House,  at  Saratoga-Springs. 
422   liem.  1.  One  inhabitant  speaking  of  another's  residence,  says,  "  He  lives 

in  State-street;"  or,  if  the  word  number  be  used,  "at  No. State-street. 

423.  Rem.  2.  Interjections  sometimes  have  an  objective  after  them,  but  they 
•lever  govern  it :  it  is  always  governed  by  a  transitive  active  verb,  or  preposition 
understood;  as,  "Ah  me!"  i.  e.  "Ah!  what  has  happened  to  me.'}  The  case 
after  an  interjection  will  always  have  to  depend  on  the  supplement  to  be  made : 
it  will  generally,  however,  be  the  objective  of  tliejirst  personal  pronoun,  and  the 
nominative  of  the  second ;  a=,  "Ah  me!  O  thou  wretch! ;;  (§  80,  Rule  2). 

EXERCISES. 

They  have  just  arrived  in  Rochester,  and  are  going  to 
Buffalo.  They  will  reside  two  months  at  England.  I 
have  been  to  London  after  having  resided  in  France,  and 
I  now  live  at  New- York.  I  was  in  the  place  appointed 
long  before  any  of  the  rest.  We  touched  in  Liverpool 
on  our  way  for  New- York.  I  have  been  to  home  for  a 
few  days.  We  have  been  to  home  since  morning.  I 
will  go  to  home  to-morrow. 

[Rem.  1,  2.]  He  boards  in  No.  12,  Dean  street.  He 
had  lodgings  at  George's  Square.  Ah  !  unhappy  thee, 
who  art  deaf  to  the  calls  of  duty  and  honor.  Oh  !  hap- 
py us,  surrounded  with  so  many  blessings.  Woe's  I, 
for  I  am  a  man  of  unclean  lips. 

Promiscuous.  He  has  been  expecting  of  us  some  time. 
Young  persons  need  not  be  initiated  in  the  language  of 
controversy.  His  quitting  of  the  army  was  unexpected. 
I  seen  him  yesterday.  If  there  was  no  cowardice,  there 
would  be  little  insolence.  I  was  rejoiced  at  the  news. 
I  shall  do  my  friends  no  wrong,  for  I  have  none  to  lament 
me.  They  were  descended  from  a  family  that  came  over 
with  the  Conqueror. 


§77. 


SYNTAX. 


424.  §  77.  RULE  XXVIII.  Certain  words  and 
phrases  must  be  followed  by  appropriate  preposi- 
tions;  such  as, 


Abhorrence  of. 

Accommodate  to. 

Accord  with. 

Accuse  of. 

Acquit  of. 

Adapted  to. 

Agreeable  to. 

Ask  of  a  person,  for  a  thing,  af- 
ter what  we  wish  to  hear  of. 

Averse  to  or  from. 

Believe  in,  sometimes  on. 

Bestow  upon,  on. 

Betray  to  a  person — into  a  thing. 

Boast  of.  See  Obs.  3. 

Call  on  a  person — at  a  place. 

Change  (exchange)/or,  (ajter) 
to,  into. 

Charge  a  person  with  a  thing, 
a  thing  on  an  agent. 

Compare  with,  in  respect  of 
quality — to,  for  illustration. 

Compliance  with. 

Concur  with  a  person -,  in  a 
measure  5  to  an  effect. 

Confide  in. 

Conformable  to,  with. 

Consonant  to. 

Conversant  with  men  —  in 
things  5  about  and  among 
are  less  proper. 

Copy  from  a  -Jung, — after  a 
person. 

Dependent  upon,  on. 

Derogative  from. 

Derogatory  to. 

Die  of  disease — by  an  instru- 
ment or  violence. 

Differ /row. 

Difficulty  in. 

Diminish  from — diminution  of, 

Disappointed  in  or  of  (§  86,  5). 

Disapprove  of.  See  Obs.  3. 

Discourage  from. 

Discouragement  to. 
11 


Dissent  from. 

Eager  in,  on,  for,  after. 

Engage  in  a  work— -for  a  time. 

Equal  to,  with. 

Exception  from,  to. 

Expert  in  (before  a  noun), — at 

(before  an  active  participle). 
Fall  under.  Obs.  1. 
Familiar  to,  with.     A  thing  is 

familiar  to  us-,  we,  with  it. 
"Free  from. 
Glad   of   something   gained    by 

ourselves, — at  something  that 

befalls  another. 
Incorporate    (  active  transitive  ) 

into;  (intrans.  or  passive)  with. 
Independent  of. 
Indulge  with  what  is  not  habit 

ual,  in  what  is  habitual. 
Insist  upon. 
Intrude  into  an  enclosed  place  j 

upon  what  is  not  enclosed 
Made  of. 
Marry  to. 
Martyr  for. 
Need  of. 
Observation  of. 
Prejudice  against. 
Prevail  (to  persuade)  with,  on, 
upon — ( to  overcome)   over, 

against. 
Profit  by. 
Protect  others  from  —  ourselves 

qgainst. 

Provide  with  or  for. 
Reconcile  to  friendship — with  (to 

make  consistent). 
Reduce   (to   subdue)  under, — in 

other  cases,  to  ;  as,  t<?  powder. 
Regard  for;  in  regard  to. 
Replete  with. 
Resemblance  to. 
Resolve  on 
Rule  over. 


122  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  §  77 

RULE  XXVIII.  continued. 

Sick  of.  Unite  (transitive)   to;   (intransi 

Sink  in/o,  beneath.  tive)  with. 

Swerve/rora.  Value  upon  or  on. 

Taste  fot  or  o/  (§  86,  6).  Vest  with  a  thing  possessed— in 

Tax  with  (e.  g.  a  crime) —         the  possessor. 

for  the  state.  Wait  upon,  on. 

Think  o/or  on.  Worthy  o/.  Obs.  3. 
True  to. 

425.  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  The  particular  preposition  which  it  is  proper  to  use,  often 
depends  as  much  upon  what  follows  as  upon  what  goes  before , 
thus,  we  say,  To  fall  from  a  height — i  ito  a  pit — to  work — upon 
an  enemy. 

2.  Into  is  used  only  after  verbs  of  motion,  and  denotes  entrance. 
In  is  used  when  motion  or  rest  in  a  place  is  signified  5  as,  They 
went  into  a  carriage,  and  travelled  in  it  ten  miles. 

3.  Boast,  approve,  and  disapprove,  are  often  used  without  of. 
Worthy  has  sometimes  of  following  it,  and  sometimes  not. 

4.  The  same  preposition  that  follows  the  verb  or  adjective 
usually  follows  the  noun  derived  from  it,  and  vice  versa  5  as,  Con  • 
fide  in — confidence  in — confident  in. 


EXERCISES. 

He  was  very  eager  of  recommending  him  to  his  fel- 
low citizens.  He  found  great  difficulty  of  writing.  He 
accused  the  ministers  for  having  betrayed  the  Dutch. 
This  is  certainly  not  a  change  to  the  better.  The  Eng- 
lish were  a  very  different  people  then  to  what  they  are 
now.  The  history  of  Peter  is  agreeable  with  the  sacred 
text.  It  was  intrusted  to  persons  on  whom  Congress 
could  confide.  I  completely  dissent  with  the  examiner. 
Nothing  shall  make  me  swerve  out  of  the  path  of  duty 
There  was  no  water,  and  he  died  for  thirst.  We  can 
safely  confide  on  none  but  the  truly  good.  Many  have 
profited  from  good  advice.  The  error  was  occasioned 
by  compliance  to  earnest  entreaty.  This  is  a  principle 
in  unison  to  our  nature  [Obs.  4].  This  remark  is  in  ac- 
cordance to  truth.  His  parents  think  on  him  and  his 
improvement*  with  pleasure  and  hope. 


§  77  SYNTAX.  123 

EXERCISES  ON  RULE  XXVIII.  continued. 

You  have  bestowed  your  favors  to  the  most  deserving 
persons.  The  wisest  persons  need  not  think  it  any  di- 
minution to  their  greatness,  or  derogation  of  their  suffi- 
ciency, to  rely  upon  counsel.  It  is  consonant  with  our 
nature.  He  had  no  regard  after  his  father's  commands. 
There  was  a  prejudice  to  his  cause.  There  is  no  need 
for  it.  Reconciling  himself  with  the  king.  They  have 
no  resemblance  with  each  other.  Upon  such  occasions 
as  fell  into  their  cognizance.  I  am  engaged  with  pre- 
paring for  a  journey.  We  profit  from  experience.  He 
is  resolved  of  going  to  the  Persian  court.  Expert  about 
deceiving.  The  Romans  reduced  the  world  to  their 
own  power.  He  provided  them  in  every  thing.  He 
seems  to  have  a  taste  of  such. studies.  You  are  con- 
versant with  that  science.  He  is  more  conversant  in 
men  of  science  than  -in  politicians.  These  are  excep- 
tions of  the  general  rule.  He  died  for  thirst.  He  died 
of  the  sword.  He  is  glad  of  calamities.  She  is  glad  at 
his  company. 

He  saw  your  brother,  and  inquired  from  him  for  his 
friend's  health.  He  was  charged  of  being  accessary  to 
the  murder.  This  is  the  first  time  we  have  been  in- 
dulged in  such  a  luxury.  He  indulges  himself  with  the 
most  pernicious  habits.  I  hope  I  do  not  intrude  into 
you.  He  will  suffer  no  one  to  intrude  upon  his  house. 
Is  that  a  copy  after  nature  ?  If  you  copy  from  your 
father's  example,  you  will  do  well.  He  has  never  been 
reconciled  with  his  lot.  How  can  such  conduct  be  re- 
conciled to  the  principles  he  professes  ?  It  is  proper 
that  the  people  should  be  taxed  with  the  support  of 
government.  Can  not  you  prevail  over  your  father  to 
pay  us  a  visit?  The  enemy  prevailed  upon  us  by  supe- 
rior force.  Take  care  to  protect  yourself  from  the  dan- 
gers which  threaten  you.  The  walls  protected  us 
against  the  fire  of  the  enemy.  He  has  now  become  fa- 
miliar to  the  rules  of  Grammar.  Your  countenance  is 
familiar  with  me.  The  office  of  judge  and  advocate 
should  not  be  vested  with  the  same  person. 


124  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  78 

426.  §  78.   RULE  XXIX.    In  the  use  of  verbs 
and  words  that  in  point  of  time  relate  to  each  other > 
the  order  of  time  must  be  observed;  as,  "  I  have 
known  him  these  many  years  ;  not,  "  I  know  him 
(or  I  knew  him)  these  many  years." 

427.  Rcm.  The  particular  tense  necessary  to  be  used  must  de- 
pend upon  the  sense,  and  no  rules  can  be  given  that  will  apply  to 
all  cases.     But  it  may  be  proper  to  observe, 

428.  Obs.  1.  An  observation  which  is  always  true,  must  be  ex- 
pressed  in  the  present  tense-,  as,  The  stoics  believed  that  u  all 
crimes  are  equal"  (§  24,  I.  2). 

429.  Obs.  2.  The  present-perfect,  and  not  the  present  tense, 
should  be  used  in  connection  with  words  denoting  an  extent  oi 
time  continued  to  the  present-,  thus,  u  They  continue  with  me 
now  three  days,"  should  be,  u  have  continued,"  etc.  (§  24,  II.  1). 

430.  06s.  3.  The  present-perfect  tense  ought  never  to  be  used 
in  connection  with  words  which  express  past  time-,  thus,  l 'I  have 
formerly  mentioned  his  attachment  to  study,"  should  be,   u  I  for- 
merly mentioned,"  etc.  (§  24,  III.  1). 

431.  06s.  4.  The  present  and   past  of  the  auxiliaries,  shall, 
will,  may,  can,  should  never  be  associated  in  the  same  sentence-, 
and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  subsequent  verb  be  expressed  in 
the  same  tense  with  the  antecedent  verb-,  thus,  "  I  may  or  can  do 
it  now,  if  I  choose  ;  "  I  might  or  could  do  it  now,  if  I  chose  ;"  "I 
shall  or  will  do  it,  when  I  can;"  u  I  may  do  it,  if  I  can  :"   u  I 
once  could  do  it,  but  I  would  not-,"  "  I  would  have  done  it  then, 
but  I  could  not."    "  I  mention  it  to  him,  that   he  may  stop  if  he 
choose  ;"  "  I  mentioned  it  to  him,  that  he  might  stop  if  he  chose;" 
"  I  have  mentioned  it  to  him,  that  he  may  stop  5"  u  I  had  men- 
tioned it  to  him,  that  he  might  stop-,"  u  I  had  mentioned  it  to 
him,  that  he  might  have  stopped,  had  he  chosen." 

432.  NOTE  1.  When  5/10 uld  is  used  instead  of  ought,   to  express  present  duty 
(172),  it  may  be  followed  by  the  present;  a^s,  "  You  should  study  that  you  truiy 
become  learned." 

433.  NOTE  2.  The  verb  had  is  sometimes  used  for  would;  thus,  "  I  had  rather 
do  it,"  for  "  I  would  rather  do  it."     This  should  not  be  imitated. 

434.  NOTE  3.  Would  and  should  are  sometimes,  hi  common  language,  used  as 
if  they  were  almost  expletives;  thus,  "  It  ivoiild  seem,"  for  "  It  seems.1' 

435.  06s.  5.  The  indicative  present  is  frequently  used  after 
the  words  ichen,  till,  before,  as  soon  as,  after,  to  express  the 
relative  time  of  a  future  action  (§  24,  1.  5)j  as,  "  When  he 


§  78.  SYNTAX.  125 

comes,  he  will  be  welcome."  When  placed  before  the  present- 
perfect  indicative,  these  words  denote  the  completion  of  a  future 
action  or  event  •,  as,  "  He  will  never  be  better,  till  he  has  felt 
the  pangs  of  poverty." 

436.  Obs,  6.  A  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood  must  be  in  the  pre~ 
sent  tense,  when  it  expresses  what  is   contemporary  in  point  of 
time  with  its  governing  verb,  or  subsequent  to  it;  as,    u  He  ap- 
peared to  be  a  man  of  letters-,"  "  The  Apostles  were  determined 
topreach  the  gospel." 

437.  Obs.  7.  But  the  perfect  infinitive  must  be  used  to  express 
what  is  antecedent  to  the  time  of  the  governing  verb;  as,  "  Ro- 
mulus is  said  to  have  founded  Rome." 

EXERCISES. 

1.  The  doctor  said,  in  his  lecture,  that  fever  always 
produced  thirst.  The  philosopher  said  that  heat  always 
expanded  metals.     He  said  that  truth  was  immutable. 

2.  I  know  the  family  more  than  twenty  years.   I  am 
now  at  school  six  months.    My  brother  was  sick  four 
weeks,  and  is  no  better.    He  tells  lies  long  enough. 

3.  He  has  lately  lost  an  only  son.    He  has  been  for- 
merly very  disorderly.     I  have  been  at  London  last 
year,  and  seen  the  king  last  summer.     I  have  once  or 
twice  last  week  told  the  story  to  our  friend. 

4.  I  should  be  obliged  to  him,  if  he  will  gratify  me 
in  that  particular.     Ye  will  not  come  to  me  that  ye 
might  have  life      Be  wise  and  good  that  you  might  be 
happy.     He  was  told  his  danger,  that  he  may  shun  it. 

[Note  1.]  We  should  respect  those  persons,  because 
they  continued  long  attached  to  us.  He  should  study 
diligently,  that  he  might  become  learned."  2.  I  had  ra- 
ther go  now  than  afterwards.  He  had  better  do  it  soon, 

5.  We  shall  welcome  him  when  he  shall  arrive.    As 
soon  as  he  shall  return,  we  will  recommence  our  studies. 
A  prisoner  is  not  accounted  guilty,  till  he  be  convicted. 

6.  From  the  conversation  I  had  with  him,  he  ap- 
peared to  have  been  a  man  of  learning.    Our  friends  in- 
tended to  have  met  us.  He  was  afraid  he  would  have  died, 

7.  Kirstall  Abbey,  now  in  ruins,  appears  to  be  an 
extensive  building.    Lycurgus,  the  Spartan  lawgiver,  is 
said  to  be  born  in  the  926th  year  before  Christ. 

11* 


126  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  §79. 

438.  §  79.  RULE  XXX.   When  a  member  of  a 
sentence  refers  to  two  different  clauses,  it  should  be 
equally  applicable  to  both ;  as,  He  has  not  been,  and 
can  not  be,  censured  for  such  conduct. 

439.  This  rule  is  often  violated  in  sentences  in  which  there  are 
two   comparisons  of  a  different    nature  and   government;  thus, 
uHe  was   more  beloved,  but  not  so  much  admired  as  Cinthio." 
Here,  as  Cinthio  is  applicable  to  the  clause  so  much  admired,  but 
can  not  be  connected  with  more  beloved.     In  such  sentences,  the 
proper  way  is,  to  complete  the  construction  of  the  first  member, 
and  leave  that  of  the  second  understood;  as,  "He  was  more  be- 
loved than  Cinthio,  but  not  so  much  admired"  (as  Cinthio). 

440.  A  proper  choice  of  words,  and  a  perspicuous  arrangement 
should  be  carefully  attended  to. 

EXERCISES. 

This  dedication  may  serve  for  almost  any  book  that 
has,  or  ever  shall  be  published.  Will  it  be  urged  that 
these  books  are  as  old,  or  even  older  than  tradition.  He 
is  more  bold  and  active,  but  not  so  wise  and  studious  as 
his  companion.  Sincerity  is  as  valuable,  and  even  more 
valuable,  than  knowledge.  No  person  was  ever  so  per- 
plexed, or  sustained  the  mortifications  as  he  has  done  to- 
day. Neither  has  he,  nor  any  other  persons  suspected 
so  much  dissimulation.  The  intentions  of  some  of  these 
philosophers,  nay,  of  many,  might  and  probably  were 
good.  The  reward  is  due,  and  it  has  already,  or  will 
hereafter  be  given  to  him.  This  book  is  preferable,  and 
cheaper  than  the  other.  He  either  has,  or  will  obtain  the 
prize.  He  acted  both  suitably  and  consistently  with  his 
profession.  The  first  proposal  was  essentially  different, 
and  inferior  to  the  second.  He  contrives  better,  but  does 
not  execute  so  well  as  his  brother.  There  are  principles 
in  man  which  ever  have,  and  ever  will  incline  him  to 
offend.  The  greatest  masters  of  critical  learning  differ 
and  contend  against  one  another.  The  winter  has  not, 
and  probably  will  not  be  so  severe  as  was  expected. 
He  is  more  friendly  in  his  disposition,  but  not  so  dis- 
tinguished for  talents,  as  his  brother. 


^  80.  SYNTAX.  127 

'141.  §  80.  RULE  XXXI.  A  substantive  whose 
case  depends  on  no  other  word,  is  put  in  the  nomina- 
tive. This  occurs  under  the  four  following 

SPECIAL  RULES. 

442.  RULE  1.  A  substantive  with  a  participle,  whose  case  rfe- 
pends  on  no  other  word,  is  put  in  the   nominative  absolute.  /  as, 
u  He  being  gone,  only  two  remain." 

443.  RULE  2.  A  person  or  thing  addressed,  without  a  verb  09 
governing  word,    is  put  in  the  nominative  independent  /.  as,   u  I 
remain,  dear  sir,  yours  truly,"  u  Plato,  thou  reasonest  well." 

444.  RULE  3.  JL  substantive,  unconnected  in  mere  exclamation^ 
is  put  in  the  nominative  independent ;  as,  "  O  the  times!  0  the 
manners  /" 

445.  RULE  4.  A  substantive,  used  by  pleonasm  before   an  af- 
firmation, is  put  in  the  nominative  independent ;  as,  u  The  boy, 
oh!  where  was  he?" 

446.  Rem.  1.  Under  this  rulea  mistakecanbe  made  only  in  the  case  of  pronouns. 

447.  Rem.  2.  The  substantive  is  sometimes  understood ;  as,  Generally  speak. 
Ing,  i.  e.  We.    His  conduct,  viewing  it  in  the  most  favorable  light,  reflects  dis- 
credit on  his  character,  i.  e.  we,  men,  or  ^parson  viewing  it,  £c. 

EXERCISES. 

He  made  as  wise  proverbs  as  any  body  since,  him 
only  excepted.  Them  descending,  the  ladder  fell. 
Whom  being  dead,  we  shall  come.  But  them  being  ab- 
sent, we  can  not  come  to  a  determination. 

Whose  grey  top 

Shall  tremble,  him  descending. 

The  bleating  sheep  with  my  complaints  agree  •. 
Them  parched  with  heat,  and  me  inflamed  by  thee. 

Her  quick  relapsing  to  her  former  state, 
With  boding  fears  approach  the  sewing  train. 
There  all  thy  gifts  and  graces  we  display; 
Thee,  only  thee,  directing  all  our  way. 

So  great  ^Eneas  rushes  to  the  fight, 

Sprung  from  a  god,  and  more  than  mortal  bold, 

Him  fresh  in  youth,  and  me  in  arms  grown  old. 


128  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  §  81 

448.  §  81.  RULE  XXXIL  1.  The  article  A  or  AN 
is  put  before  common  nouns  in  the  singular  number, 
when  used  INDEFINITELY  ;  as,  "  A  man;"  "  An  ap- 
ple;" that  is,  "  any  man;"  "any  apple." 

2.  The  article  THE  is  put  before  common  nouns, 
either  singular  or  plural,  when  used  DEFINITELY  ; 
as,  "The  sun  rises."  "The  city  of  New-York." 

449.  It  is  impossible  to  give  a  precise  rule  for  the  use  of  the 
article,  in  every  case.     The  best  general  rule  is  to  observe  what 
the  sense  requires.     The  following  usages  may  be  noticed. 

1.  The  article  is  omitted  before  a  noun  that  stands  for  a  whole 
species  /  as,  Man  is  mortal ,  and  before  the  names  of  minerals, 
metals,  arts,  etc.     Some  nouns  denoting  the   species,  have  the 
article  always  prefixed  •,  as,    The   dog  is  a  more  grateful  animal 
than  the  cat.     The  lion  is  a  noble  animal. 

2.  The  last  of  two  nouns  after  a  comparative,  should  have  no 
article  when  they  both  refer  to  one  person  or  thing;  as,  He  is  a 
better  reader  than  writer. 

3.  When  two  or  more  adjectives,   or  epithets,  belong  to  the 
same  subject,   the  article  should  be  placed  before  the  first,    and 
omitted  before  the  rest-,  as,   A  red  and  white  rose,  i.  e.   a  rose, 
some  parts  of  which  are  red,  and  others  white.     But  when  the 
adjectives  or  epithets  belong   to  different    subjects,    the    article 
should  be  prefixed  to  each;  as,  a  red  and  a  white  rose,  i.  e.  a  red 
rose  and  a  white  rose.     "  Johnson, the  bookseller  and  stationer," 
indicates  one  person-,  u  Johnson  the  bookseller,  and  the  stationer," 
would  indicate  two  different  persons.  App.  XXI. 

NOTE.  The  same  remark  may  be  made  respecting  the  demonstrative  pronouns^ 
as,  "  That  great  and  good  man/'  means  only  one  man.  TJiat  great  and  then 
good  man,  means  two  ;  the  one  great,  and  the  other  good. 

4.  A  nice  distinction  of  the  sense   is  sometimes  made,  by  trie- 
use  or  omission  of  the  article  a  before  the  words  feiv,  little.     If  I 
say,  u  He   behaved  with   a  little  reverence,"  the  expression  is 
positive,  and  implies  a  degree  of  praise.     But  if  I  say,   "  He  be 
haved  with  little  reverence,"  the  expression  is  negative,  and  im- 
plies a  degree  of  blame. 

5  A  has  sometimes  the  meaning  of  every  or  each  ;  as,  twelve  shillings  a  dozen, 
two  hundred  pounds  a  year  ;  i.  e.  every  dozen,  every  year. 

6.  The  antecedent  to  a  restrictive  clause  is  preceded  by  the  definite  article ;  as 
"  All  tlit  pupils  that  were  present  did  well." 

7.  The  is  sometimes  used  before  the  comparative  and  the  superlative  degree  both 
of  adverbs  and  adjectives;  a*,  The  more  I  study  grammar,  the  better  I  like  it 


§81.  SYNTAX.  129 

RULE  XXXII.    Continued. 
EXERCISES 

ON  THE  IMPROPER  USE  AND  OMISSION  OF  THE  ARTICLES. 

1.  Reason  was  given  to  a  man  to  control  his  passions. 
The  gold  is  corrupting.     A  man  is  the  noblest  work  of 
the  creation.    Wisest  and  best  men  are  sometimes  be- 
trayed into  errors.    We  must  act  our  part  with  a  con- 
stancy ,  though  reward   of  our  constancy  be   distant. 
There  are  some  evils  of  life  which  equally  affect  prince 
and  people.    The  purity  has  its  seat  in  the  heart,  but 
extends  its  influence  over  so  much  of  outward  conduct 
as  to  form  the  great  and  material  part  of  a  character. 
At  worst  I  could  incur  but  a  gentle  reprimand.     The 
profligate  man  is  seldom  or  never  found  to  be  the  good 
husband,  the  good  father,  or  the  beneficent  neighbour 

2.  A  man  may  be  a  better  soldier  than  a  logician. 
There  is  much  truth  in  the  old  adage,  that  fire  is  a  bet 
ter  servant  than  a  master.     He  is  not  so  good  a  poet  as 
a  historian. 

3.  Thomson  the  watchmaker,  and  the  jeweller  from 
London,  was  of  the  party.    A  red  and  a  white  flag  was 
displayed  from  the  tower.     A  beautiful  stream  flows 
between  the  new  and  old  mansion.     A  hot  and  cold 
spring  were  found  in  the  same  neighbourhood.     The 
young  and  old  man  seem  to  be  on  good  terms.     The 
bill  equally  concerns  the  manufacturer  and  consumer. 

4.  He  has  been  much  censured  for  paying  a  little  at- 
tention to  his  business.    So  bold  a  breach  of  order  called 
for  little  severity  in  punishing  the  offender. 

5.  A  shilling  for  every  dozen  is  a  moderate  price.    I 
would  not  undertake  to  walk  twenty  miles  each  day  for 
three  months.     A  guinea  every  week. 

6.  Persons  who  suffered  by  this  calamity,  have  been 
much  commiserated.    Foreign  travel,  and  things  which 
he  has  seen,  have  enlarged  his  views.    The  proprietors 
are  responsible  for  all  parcels  that  are  committed  to 
their  care.    All  persons  who  were  consulted,  were  of 
this  opinion.     Members  who  do  not  appear,  must  be 
fined. 


130  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  82 

450  §  82.  XXXIII.  An  ellipsis  or  omission  of 
words  is  admissible,  when  they  can  be  supplied  in 
the  mind  with  such  certainty  and  readiness  as  not  to 
obscure  the  sense.  Thus,  instead  of  saying,  "  He 
was  a  learned  man,  and  he  was  a  wise  man,  and 
he  was  a  good  man ;"  we  say,  "He  was  a  learned, 
wise,  and  good  man." 

451.  Obs.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  rule  proper  to  be  kept 
eteadily  in  view,  that  the  fewer  the  words  by  which  we  can  express 
our  ideas,  the  better,  provided  the  meaning  be  clearly  brought  out. 

4.52.  Rem.  The  auxiliaries  of  the  compound  tenses  are  often  used 
alone  to  represent  the  verb-,  as,  "  We  have  done  it,  but  thou  hast 
not;"  i.  e.  thou  hast  not  done  it. 

453.  The  verb  to  be,  with  its  subject,  in  dependent  clauses,  is 
often  omitted  after  the  connectives  if,  though,  yet,  when,  <fec. ;  as, 
"  Study,  if  [it  ii\  neglected,  becomes  irksome." — "  Though  [he  was] 
poor,  he  was  honest." 

EXERCISES. 

He  sent  me  the  books  and  the  papers  which  he  pro- 
mised. He  has  a  house  and  a  garden  in  the  country. 
These  counsels  were  the  dictates  of  virtue  and  the  dic- 
tates of  true  honor.  Such  conduct  is  contraiy  to  the 
laws  of  God,  and  to  the  laws  of  man.  His  crimes  brought 
Mm  into  extreme  distress  and  into  extreme  perplexity. 
He  was  blessed  with  an  affectionate  father  and  an  af- 
fectionate mother.  His  reputation  and  his  estate  are 
both  lost  by  gambling.  He  is  temperate,  he  is  disinterest- 
ed, he  is  benevolent.  This  is  the  man  whom  we  met 
and  whom  we  invited  to  our  house.  Genuine  virtue 
supposes  our  benevolence  and  our  usefulness  to  be 
strengthened  and  to  be  confirmed  by  principle.  Perseve- 
rance in  laudable  pursuits  will  reward  our  toils,  and 
will  produce  effects  beyond  our  expectation.  We  often 
commend  imprudently  as  well  as  censure  imprudently. 
Changes  are  often  taking  place  hi  men  and  in  manners, 
in  opinions  and  in  customs. 

[Rem.]  He  regards  the  truth,  but  thou  dost  not  regard 
it.  They  must  be  punished,  and  they  shall  be  punished. 
We  succeeded,  but  they  did  not  succeed. 


§  83.  SYNTAX.  131 

454.  §  83.  RULE  XXXIV.  An  ellipsis  is  not  al- 
lowable when  it  would  obscure  the  sentence,  weaken 
its  force,  or  be  attended  with  an  impropriety ;  as, 
We  are  inclined  to  flatter  (those)  who  flatter  us. 

455.  Rem.  1.  In  general,  no  word  should  be  omitted  that  is  ne- 
cessary to  the  full  and  correct  construction,  or  even  harmony  of  a 
sentence.    Articles,  pronouns,  and  prepositions,  should  always  be 
repeated  when  the  words  with  which  they  stand  connected  are 
used  emphatically.     Even  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  and  adverbs, 
must  often,  under  such  circumstances,  be  repeated-  as,  "  Not  only 
the  year,  but  the  day  and  the  hour  were  appointed." 

456.  Rem.  2.  It  is  generally  improper  (except  in  poetry)  to 
omit  the  antecedent  to  a  relative ;  and  always,  to  omit  a  relative 

'when  of  the  nominative  case. 

457.  Rem.  3.  The  article  should  be  repeated,  when  a  different 
form  of  it  is  required;  as,  "A  horse  and  an  ass." 

EXERCISES. 

I  gladly  shunned  who  gladly  fled  from  me.  His 
honor,  interest,  religion,  were  all  embarked  in  this  un- 
dertaking. The  more  I  see  of  his  conduct,  I  like  him 
better.  It  is  not  only  the  duty,  but  interest  of  young 
persons  to  be  studious  and  diligent.  Without  firmness, 
nothing  that  is  great  can  be  undertaken ;  that  is  difficult 
or  hazardous,  accomplished.  That  species  of  commerce 
will  produce  great  gain  or  loss.  Many  days  or  even 
weeks  pass  away  unimproved.  The  people  of  this  coun- 
try possess  a  healthy  climate  and  soil.  I  have  bought 
a  house  and  orchard.  His  conduct  is  not  scandalous, 
and  that  is  the  best  can  be  said  of  it.  The  captain  had 
several  men  died  in  his  ship.  They  enjoy  a  free  con- 
stitution and  laws.  That  is  a  property  most  men  have, 
or  at  least  may  attain.  *A  noble  spirit  disdaineth  the 
malice  of  fortune ;  his  greatness  of  soul  is  not  to  be  cast 
down.  Charles  was  a  man  of  learning,  knowledge,  and 
benevolence ;  and  what  is  more,  a  true  Christian.  The 
team  consisted  of  a  black  and  white  horse.  A  beauti- 
ful round  and  square  table  were  exhibited. 

*  "A  noble  spirit,"  &c.,  should  be,  "  A  man  of  a  noble  spirit.'1    It  would  be 
improper  to  ype.ik  °f  the  soul  of  a  spirit 


132  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  §  84 

§  84.     SYNTACTICAL  PARSING. 

458.  SYNTACTICAL  PARSING  includes  Etymolo- 
gical, and  adds  to  it  a  statement  of  the  relation  in 
which  words  stand  to  each  other,  and  the  rules 
according  to  which  they  are  combined  in  phrases 
and  sentences. 

459.  The  method  of  parsing  each  part  of  speech  ctymologically, 
has  been  pointed  out  under  each-,  viz.  Nouns,  No.  89-,  Article,  un- 
der 97-,  Adjective,   110  5  Pronouns,  viz.  personal,   115 ;  relative, 
123 ;  adjective,  145  -,  Verb,  205;  Adverb,  231 5  Prepositions,  237; 
Interjection,  240;  and  Conjunctions,  248.     Also,  specimens  of 
Etymological  parsing  are  given,   §  39.     The   method  of  parsing 
each  part  of  speech  syntactically  will  be  seen  from  the  following 

SPECIMEN  OF  SYNTACTICAL  PARSING.* 

460.  PSALM  cxi.  10.  "  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the 
beginning  of  wisdom;  and  a  good  understanding 
have  all  they  that  do  his  commandments :    His 
praise  endureth  forever."' 

461.  This  sentence  contains  all  the  parts  of  speech 
except  the  interjection,  and  may  be  analyzed  thus: 

"  The  fear  of  the  Lord,"  etc.  This  is  a  compound  sentence, 
consisting  of  the  three  following  parts,  viz. 

1.  "The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom." 

This  is  a  simple  sentence. 

The  logical  subject  is,  The  fear  of  the  Lord 

The  logical  predicate  is,  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom 

The  grammatical  subject  is, /ear.    It  is  limited  by  the  adjunct,  of  the  Lord,  and 

shown  to  be  limited  by  the  article  the  (App.  VII). 
The  grammatical  predicate  is,  is  beginning,  in  which  is  is  the  verb  or  copula, 

and  beginning,  the  attribute.    It  is  limited  by  the  adjunct,  of  wisdom,  and 

shown  to  be  limited  by  the.. 

*In  parsing  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  it  is  quite  unnecessary  to  ^peat  the 
words  gender,  number,  mood,  tense;  thus,  masculine  gender,  singular  number, 
&c. :  the  meaning  being  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  terms  masculine,  feminine, 
neuter,  singular,  plural,  indicative,  potential,  &c. ;  present,  past,  future,  &c.; 
and  it  has  the  advantage  of  saving  much  time.  For  the  same  reason,  it  may  be 
proper  to  omit  the  terms,  proper  nnd  common,  before  nouns,  and  the  mention  of 


§  84.  SYNTAX.  133 

2.  "And  a  good  understanding  have  all  they  that  do 
his  commandments." 

Tliis  is  a  compound  sentence,  connected  with  the  preceding  by  and;  it  contain! 
one  leading  and  one  dependent  clause,  connected  by  that. 
The  independent  clause  is,  "  All  they  have  a  good  understanding.*' 
The  dependent  clause  is,  "  that  do  his  commandments." 
fn  the  first  or  leading  clause. 
The  logical  subject  is,  all  they. 
The  logical  predicate  is,  have  a  good  understanding. 
The  grammatical  subject  is,  they,  qualified  by  all. 
The  grammatical  predicate  is,  have,  modified  by  its  object,  understanding, 

which  is  qualified  by  its  adjective,  good,  and  shewn  to  be  indefinite  by  the 

article  a. 

In  the  dependent  clause, 
The  logical  subject  is  the  relative   that,  which  connects  the  dependent  with  the 

antecedent  clause. 

The  logical  predicate  is,  do  his  commandments. 
The  grammatical  subject  is  the  same  as  the  logical. 
The  grammatical  predicate  is  do,    modified  by  its  object,  commandment*t 

which  again  is  limited  by  the  possessive,  his. 

3.  "  His  praise  endureth  forever." 

This  is  a  simple  sentence,  of  which 

The  logical  subject  is,  hii  praise. 

The  logical  predicate  is,  endureth  forever. 

The  grammatical  subject  is,  praise,  qualified  by  his. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is,  endureth,  modified,  in  respect  of  time,  by  forever 

462.   The  sentence  thus  analyzed,  may  be  parsed 
syntactically  as  follows : 

The is  the  definite  article;  it  belongs  to/<rar,  and  shews  it  to  be  limited 

RTTLE  XXXII.  2.  The  article  THE,  &c. 

(tar is  a  noun,  neuter,  in  the  nominative  singular,  the  subject  of  t*5.  $  47 

RULE  I.  The  subject  of  a  verb,  &c. 

of is  a  preposition, which  shows  the  relation  between  Lord,  the  subse- 
quent, and /ear,  the  antecedent  term. 

the is  the  definite  article ;  it  belongs  to  Lord,  and  shews  it  to  be  definite ; 

it  is  rendered  so  by  eminence.  RULE  XXXII.  2. 

Lord  "•  •  is  a  noun,  masculine,  in  the  objective  singular,  governed  by  of 
RULK  HI.  Prepositions  govern,  &o. 

person,  except  when  the  noun  is  in  theirs*  or  second  person.  The  conjugation 
Df  regular  verbs  may  also  be  omitted,  because  their  being  regular,  sufficiently  in- 
dicates their  principal  parts.  When  the  verb  is  passive,  parse  thus :  "  A  verb 
transitive,  in  the  passive  voice,  regular,  irregular,"  &c 

12 


134  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  84 

fa. ...... ..id  a  verb  intransitive,  irregular,  am,  was,  been;  it  is  found  in  the 

present  indicative  active,  third  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  its 
subject  fear  RULE  I.  A  verb  agrees,  &c. 

the is  the  definite  article ;  it  belongs  to  beginning,  and  shews  it  to  be 

used  definitely ;  it  is  rendered  so  by  the  adjunct,  of  wisdom. 

beginning  is  a  noun,  neuter,  in  the  nominative  singular,  and  is  the  predicate  - 
nominative  after  is.  RULE  XIII.  The  predicate  substantive  after  * 
verb,  &c. 

c/.........  is  a  preposition;  it  shews  the  relation  between  wisdom,  the  subse- 

quent,  and  beginning,  the  antecedent  term. 

wisdom-  •  is  a  noun,  neuter,  in  the  objective  singular,  governed  by  of.  RULB 
III.  A  preposition,  &c. 

and is  a  copulative  conjunction ;  it  connects  the  following  compound,  with 

the  preceding  simple  sentence.  RULE  XX.  1.  Conjunctions  connect,  etc. 

a is  the  indefinite  article ;  it  belongs  to  understanding,  and  shews  it  to 

be  used  indefinitely.  RULE  XXXII.  1.  The  article  a  or  an,  &c. 

good An  adjective,  compared  irregularly,  good,  better,  best ;  it  qualifies  un- 
derstanding. RULE  VIII.  An  adjective  qualifies,  &c. 

understanding  is  a  noun,  neuter,  in  the  objective  singular,  the  object  of,  and  go. 
verned  bv  have.  RULE  II.  A  transitive  verb,  &c. 

have"-  • .  is  a  verb  transitive,  irregular,  have,  had,  had,'  it  is  found  in  the  pre- 
sent indicative  active,  third  person  plural,  and  agrees  with  its  subject, 
they.  RULE  I.  A  verb  agrees,  &c. 

oB is  an  indefinite  adjective  pronoun,  and  qualifies  they.  RULE  VIII.  An 

adjective  qualifies,  &c. 

they  ••••••  is  a  personal  pronoun,  masculine  or  feminine,  in  the  nominative  plural 

put  for  persons,  and  is  the  subject  of  have.  §  47,  RULE  I.  Tlie  subject 
of  a  verb,  &c 

tkat is  a  relative  pronoun,  masculine  or  feminine,  in  the  nominative  plural, 

the  subject  of  do.  §  47,  RULE  I.  It  is  used  for  ivho  C330),  and  agrees 
with  its  antecedent  they.  RULE  XI.  The  relative  agrees,  &c.  1* 
connects  its  clause  with  its  antecedent  they,  restricting  it. 

do is  a  verb,  transitive,  irregular,  do,  did,  done  ;  it  is  found  in  the  pre. 

sent  indicative  active,  third  person  plural,  and  agrees  with  its  subject, 
that.  RULE  I.  A  verb  agrees,  &c. 

hit is  a  possessive  adjective  pronoun,  standing  for  Lord's,  anc.  qualifying 

commandments.  RULE  VIII.  An  adjective,  &c. 

commandments,  is  a  noun,  neuter,  in  the  objective  plural ;  the  object  of,  and  go- 
verned by  do.  RULE  II.  A  transitive  verb,  &c. 

His is  a  possessive  adjective  pronoun,  as  before,  qualifies  praise.  RULB 

VIII.  An  adjective,  fee. 

praise-"-  is  a  noun,  neuter,  in  the  nominative  singular,  the  subject  of  cndureth. 
§  47,  RULE  I.  The  subject  of  a  verb,  &c. 

tndurcth--  is  a  verb,  intransitive,  regular  ;  it  is  in  the  present  indicative  active 
third  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  its  subject  praise      RULB  I 
A  verb  agrees,  &c. 
.  U  an  adverb  of  time,  and  modifies  enrlitreth.  RnLE.XXlV.  Adverbs,  Sec. 


PROMIS.]  SYNTAX.  135 

§  85.    PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES.* 

ON   THE   RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

NOTE.  The  following  exercises,  after  being  corrected,  or  in  the 
time  of  correcting,  may  be  used  as  exercises  in  Syntactical  Parsing. 

1.  John  writes  pretty.     I  shall  nevei  do  so  no  more. 
The  train  of  our  ideas  are  often  interrupted.    Was  you 
present  at  last  meeting  ?     He  need  not  to  be  in  so  much 
haste  (201).    He  dare  not  act  otherwise  than  he  docs. 
Him  whom  they  seek  is  in  the  house.     George  or  I  is 
the  person.     They  or  he  is  much  to  be  blamed.     The 
troop  consist  of  fifty  men.     Those  set  of  books  was  a 
valuable  present.     That  pillar  is  sixty  foot  high.     His 
conduct  evinced  the  most  extreme  vanity.     These  tree? 
are  remarkable  tall.     He  acted  bolder  than  was  expec- 
ted.    This  is  he  who  I  gave  the  book  to.    Eliza  always 
appears  amiably.     Who  do  you  lodge  with  now?     He 
was  born  at  London,  but  he  died  in  Bath.  If  he  be  sin- 
cere I  am  satisfied.    Her  father  and  her  were  at  church. 
The  master  requested  him  and  I  to  read  more  distinctly, 
It  is  no  more  but  his  due. 

2.  Let  he  and  I  read  the  next  chapter.     She  is  free 
of  pain.    Those  sort  of  dealings  are  unjust.     David  the 
son  of  Jesse  was  the  youngest  of  his  brothers.     You 
was  very  kind  to  him,  he  said.     Well,  says  I,  what  does 
thou  think  of  him  now?     James  is  one  of  those  boys 
that  was  kept  in  at  school,  for  bad  behavior.     Thou, 
James,  did  deny  the  deed.     Neither  good  nor  evil  come 
of  themselves.    We  need  not  to  be  afraid.    He  expected 
to  have  gained  more  by  the  bargain.     You  should  drink 
plenty  of  goat  milk.     It  was  him  who  spoke  first.     Do 
you  like  ass  milk  ?     Is  it  me  that  you  mean  ?     Who  did 
you  buy  your  grammar  from  ?     If  one  takes  a  wrong 
method  at  first  setting  out,  it  will  lead  them   astray. 
Neither  man  nor  woman  were  present.     I  am  more  tal- 
ler than  you.    She  is  the  same  lady  who  sang  so  sweetly. 
After  the  most  straitest  sect  of  our  religion,  I  lived  a 

*NOTE. —  In  the  following,  as  well  as  in  the  preceding  exercises,  some  sen, 
tences  are  taken  from  the  Bible,  containing  expressions  which,  though  authorized 
when  that  excellent  translation  was  made,  have  now  become  obsolete.  They  »•* 
Introduced  here  to  be  changed  into  the  form  which  modem  usage  requires. 


13(5  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  LPROMIS* 

Pharisee.  Is  not  thy  wickedness  great  ?  and  thine  ini- 
quities infinite  ?  There  was  more  sophists  than  one.  If 
a  person  have  lived  twenty  or  thirty  years,  he  should 
have  some  experience.  If  tins  were  his  meaning,  the 
prediction  has  failed.  Fidelity  and  truth  is  the  founda- 
tion of  all  justice.  His  associates  in  wickedness  will 
not  fail  to  mark  the  alteration  of  his  conduct.  Thy 
rod  and  thy  staff,  they  comfort  me. 

3.  And  when  they  had  lift  up  their  eyes,  they  saw  no 
man,  save  Jesus  only.     Strive  not  with  a  man  without 
cause,  if  he  have  done  thee  no  harm.     Now  both  the 
chief  priests  and  Pharisees  had  given  a  commandment, 
that  if  any  man  knew  where  he  were,  he  should  show 
it,  that  they  might  take  him.     The  girl,  her  book  is 
torn  in  pieces.     It  is  not  me  who  he  is  in  love  with. 
He  which   commands  himself,   commands  the  whole 
world.     Nothing  is  more  lovelier  than  virtue. 

4.  The  peoples  happiness  is  the  statesmans  honor. 
Changed  to  a  worser  shape  thou  canst  not  be.    I  have 
drunk  no  spirituous  liquors  this  six  years.    He  is  taller 
than  me,  but  I  am  stronger  than  him.     Solid  peace  and 
contentment  consists  neither  in  beauty  nor  riches,  but 
in  the  favor  of  God.     After  who  is  the  King  of  Israel 
come  out?     The  reciprocations  of  love  and  friendship 
between  he  and  I,  have  been  many  and  sincere.    Abuse 
of  mercies  ripen  us  for  judgment.     Peter  and  John  is 
not  at  school  to-day.     Three  of  them  was  taken  into 
custody.     To  study  diligently,  and  behave  genteelly,  is 
commendable.     The  enemies  who  we  have  most  to  fear 
are  those  of  our  own  hearts.     Regulus  was  reckoned 
the  most  consummate  warrior  which  Rome  could  then 
produce.     Suppose  life  never  so  long,  fresh  accessions 
of  knowledge  may  still  be  made. 

5.  Surely  thou  who  reads  so  much  in  the  Bible  can 
tell  me  what  became  of  Elijah.     Neither  the  master  nor 
the  scholars  is  reading.    Trust  not  him  whom  you  know 
is  dishonest.     I  love  no  interests  but  that  of  truth  and 
virtue.     Every  imagination  of  the  thoughts  of  the  heart 
are  evil  continually.     No  one  can  be  blamed  for  taking 
due  care  of  their  health.     They  crucified  him,  and  two 


PROMIS.J  SYNTAX.  137 

others  with  him,  on  either  side  one,  and  Jesus  in  the 
midst.   None  can  be  blamed  for  taking  care  of  his  health. 

6.  I  have  read  Popes  Homer,  and  Drydens  Virgil. 
He  that  is  diligent  you  should  commend.     There  was 
an  earthquake  which  made  the  earth  to  tremble.     And 
God  said  to  Solomon,  Wisdom  and  knowledge  is  granted 
unto  thee,  &c.     I  could  not  commend  him  for  justifying 
hisself  when  he  knows  that  his  conduct  was  so  very  im- 
proper.   He  was  very  much  made  on  at  school,.    Though 
he  were  a  son,  yet  learned  he  obedience  by  the  things 
which  he  suffered.     If  he  is  alone,  tell  him  the  news; 
but  if  there  is  any  body  with  him,  do  not  tell  him.    They 
ride  faster  than  us.     Though  the  measure  be  myste- 
rious, it  is  worthy  of  attention.    If  he  does  but  approve 
my  endeavors,  it  will  be  an  ample  reward.     Was  it  him 
who  came  last?     Yes,  it  was  him. 

Forever  in  this  humble  cell, 

Let  thee  and  I,  my  fair  one,  dwell. 

7.  Every  man  should  act  suitable  to  his  character  and 
station  in  life.  His  arguments  were  exceeding  clear.    I 
only  spoke  three  words  on  that  subject.     The  ant  and 
the  bee  sets  a  good  example  before  lazy  boys.    Neither 
in  this  world,  neither  in  the  world  to  come.    Evil  com- 
munications  corrupts  good  manners.      Hannibal  was 
one  of  the  greatest  generals  whom  the  world  ever  saw. 
The  middle  station  of  life  seems  to  be  the  most  advan- 
tageous for  gaming  of  wisdom. 

8.  These  are  the  rules  of  grammar,  by  the  observing 
which  you  may  avoid  mistakes.     The  king  conferred 
upon  him  the  title  of  a  duke.     My  exercises  are  not 
well  wrote.     I  do  not  hold  my  pen  good.     Grammar 
teaches  us  to  speak  proper.  She  accused  her  companion 
for  having  betrayed  her.     I  will  not  dissent  with  her, 
Nothing  shall  make  me  swerve  out  of  the  path  of  duty 
and  honor.  Who  shall  I  give  it  to  ?  Who  are  you  look- 
ing for  ?  It  is  a  diminution  to,  or  a  derogation  of  their 
judgment.    It  fell  into  their  notice.    She  values  herself 
for  her  fortune.     That   is  a  book  which  I  am  much 
pleased  with.     I  have  been  to  see  the  coronation,  and 

12* 


138  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  [  PROMIS. 

a  fine  sight  it  was.  That  portrait  of  the  emperor's  is  a 
very  exact  resemblance  of  him.  Every  thing  that  we 
here  enjoy,  change,  decay,  and  come  to  an  end.  It  is  not 
him  they  blame  so  much. 

9.  No  people  has  more  faults  than  they  that  pretend 
to  have  none.     The  laws  of  Draco  is  said  to  have  been 
wrote  with  blood.     It  is  so  clear,  or  so  obvious,  as  I 
need  not  explain  it.  She  taught  him  and  I  to  read.  The 
more  greater  a  bad  man's   accomplishments   are,  the 
more  dangerous  he  is  to  society,  and  the  more  less  fit 
for  a  companion.    Each  has  their  own  faults,  and  every 
one  should  endeavor  to  correct  their  own.     Let  your 
promises  be  few,  and  such  that  you  can  perform. 

10.  His  being  at  an  enmity  with  Caesar  and  Antony, 
were   the   cause  of  perpetual  discord.      Their  being 
forced  to  their  books  in  an  age  at  enmity  with  all  re- 
straint,  have  been  the  reason  why  many  have  hated 
books  all  their  lives.     There  was  a  coffee-house  at  that 
end  of  the  town,  in  which  several  gentlemen  used  to 
meet  of  an  evening.     Do  not  despise  the  state  of  the 
poor,  lest  it  becomes  your  own  condition.     It  was  his 
duty  to  have  interposed  his  authority  in  an  affair  of  so 
much  importance.    He  spent  his  whole  life  in  the  doing 
good.    Every  gentleman  who  frequented  the  house,  and 
conversed  with   the  erectors  of  this  occasional   club, 
were  invited  to  pass  an  evening  when  they  thought  fit. 
The  winter  has  not  been  so  severe  as  we  expected  it  to 
have  been.     The  rest  (of  the  stars)  in  circuit  walls  this 
universe.    Sir,  if  thou  have  borne  hence,  tell  me  where 
thou  hast  laid  him. 

11.  A  lampoon,  or  a  satire,  does  not  carry  in  them 
robbery  or  murder.    She  and  you  were  not  mistaken  in 
her  conjectures.     My  sister  and  I,  as  well  as  my  bro- 
ther, are  employed  in  their  respective  occupations.  He 
repents  him  of  that  indiscreet  action.     It  was  me,  and 
not  him,  that  wrote  it.    Art  thou  him  ?  I  will  take  care 
that  no  one  shall  suffer  no  injury.     I  am  a  man  who 
approves'of  wholesome  discipline,  and  who  recommend 
it  to  others ;  but  I  am  not  a  person  who  promotes  se- 
verity, or  who  object  to  mild  and  generous  treatment. 


PROMIS.J  SYNTAX.  139 

This  jackanapes  has  hit  me  in  a  right  place  enough. 
Prosperity,  as  truly  asserted  by  Seneca,  it  very  much 
obstructs  the  knowledge  of  ourselves.  To  do  to  others 
as  we  would  that  they  should  do  to  us,  it  is  our  duty. 
This  grammar  was  purchased  at  Ogle  '.s  the  bookseller  s. 
The  council  was  not  unanimous. 

12.  Who  spilt  the  ink  upon  the  table  ?     Him.    Who 
lost  this  book?    Me.  Whose  pen  is  this?  John.    There 
is  in  fact  no  impersonal  verbs  in  any  language.     And 
he  spitted  on  the  ground  and  anointed  his  eyes.     Had 
I  never  seen  ye,  I  had  never  known   ye.     The  ship 
Maiy  and  Ann  were  restored  to  their  owners.     If  we 
consult  the  improvement  of  mind,  or  the  health  of  body, 
it  is  well  known  exercise  is  the  great  instrument  for 
promoting  both.    A  man  may  see  a  metaphor  or  an  al- 
legory in  a  picture,  as  well  as  read  them  in  a  description. 

13.  I  had  no  sooner  placed  her  at  my  right  hand,  by 
the  fire,  but  she  opened  to  me  the  reason  of  her  visit. 
A  prudent  wife,  she  shall  be  blessed.     The  house  you 
speak  of,  it  cost  me  five  hundred  pounds.     Did  I  not 
tell  thee,  0  thee  infamous  wretch!  that  thou  would 
bring  me  to  ruin?  Not  only  the  counsel's  and  attorney's, 
but  the  judge's  opinion  also,  favored  his  cause.    It  was 
the  men's,  women's,  and  children's  lot,  to  suffer  great 
calamities.     That  is  the  eldest  son  of  the  King  of  Eng- 
land's.    Lord  Feversham's  the  general's  tent.     This 
palace  had  been  the  Grand  Sultan's  Mahomet's.   They 
did  not  every  man  cast  away  the  abomination  of  their 
eyes. 

14.  *I  am  purposed.    He  is  arrived.    They  were  de- 
serted from  their  regiment.    Whose  works  are  these  ? 
They  are  Cicero,  the  most  eloquent  of  men's.     The 
mighty  rivals  are  now  at  length  agreed.     The  time  of 
William  making  the  experiment,  at  length  arrived.  If 
we  alter  the  situation  of  any  of  the  words,  we  shall  pre 
sentry  be  sensible  of  the  melody  suffering.  This  portrait 


*RULE.  It  is  improper  to  use  an  intransitive  verb  in  the  passtvejorm. 
I  &m  purposed  ;  He  is  arrived  ;  should  be,  I  have  purposed  —  He  has  arrived 
From  this  rule  there  are  a  number  of  exceptions  ;  for  it  is  allowable  to  say 
is  come  ;  She  is  gone,  &c.    §  49,  II. 


140  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR-  [PROMIS 

of  the  king's  does  not  much  resemble  him.  These  pic- 
tures of  the  king  were  sent  to  him  from  Italy.  He  who 
committed  the  offence,  thou  shouldst  correct,  not  I,  who 
am  innocent. 

15.  But,  Thomas,  one  of  the  twelve,  called  Didymus, 
was  not  with  them  when  Jesus  came.    I  offer  observa- 
tions, that  a  long  and  chequered  pilgrimage  have  ena- 
bled me  to  make  on  man.     When  I  visited  Europe,  1 
returned  to  America.    Clelia  is  a  vain  woman,  whom, 
if  we  do  not  flatter,  she  will  be  disgusted.    In  his  con- 
duct was  treachery,  and  in  his  words,  faithless  profes- 
sions.   The  orators  did  not  forget  to  enlarge  themselves 
on  so  popular  a  subject.    He  acted  conformable  with 
his  instructions,  and  can  not  be  censured  justly. 

16.  No  person  could  speak  stronger  on  this  subject, 
nor  behave  nobler,  than  our  young  advocate,  for  the 
cause  of  toleration.    They  were  studious  to  ingratiate 
with  those  who  it  was  dishonorable  to  favor.  The  house 
framed  a  remonstrance,  where  they  spoke  with  great 
freedom  of  the  king's  prerogative.    Neither  flatter  or 
contemn  the  rich  or  the  great.     Many  would  exchange 
gladly  their  honors,  beauty,  and  riches,  for  that  more 
quiet  and  humbler  station,  which  thou  art  now  dissa- 
tisfied with.  High  hopes,  and  ambitious  views,  is  a  great 
enemy  to  tranquillity.    Many  persons  will  not  believe 
but  what  they  are  free  from  prejudices.     I  will  lay  me 
down  in  peace,  and  take  my  rest.     This  word  I  have 
only  found  in  Spenser.    The  king  being  apprised  of  the 
conspiracy,  he  fled  from  Jerusalem. 

17.  A  too  great  variety  of  studies  dissipate  and  weaken 
the  mind.    James  was  resolved  to  not  indulge  himself 
in  such  a  cruel  amusement.    They  admired  the  country- 
man's, as  they  called  him,   candor   and  uprightness. 
The  pleasure  or  pain  of  one  passion,  differ  from  those 
of  another.     The  court  of  Spain,  who  gave  the  order, 
were  not  aware  of  the  consequences.    There  was  much 
spoke  and  wrote  on  each  side  of  the  question ;  but  I 
have  chose  to  suspend  my  decision. 

18.  Religion  raises  men  above  themselves ;  irreligion 
sinks  them  beneath  the  brutes ;  that  binds  them  down 


PROMIS.J  SYNTAX.  141 

to  a  poor  pitiable  speck  of  earth ;  this  opens  for  them  a 
prospect  to  the  skies.  Temperance  and  exercise,  how- 
soever little  they  may  be  regarded,  they  are  the  best 
means  of  preserving  health.  To  despise  others  on  ac- 
count of  their  poverty,  or  to  value  ourselves  for  our 
wealth,  are  dispositions  highly  culpable.  This  task  was 
the  easier  performed,  from  the  cheerfulness  with  which 
he  engaged  in  it.  These  counsels  were  the  dictates  of 
virtue,  and  the  dictates  of  true  honor.  As  his  misfor- 
tunes were  the  fruit  of  his  own  obstinacy,  a  few  persons 
pitied  him.  And  they  were  judged  every  man  according 
to  their  works.  Riches  is  the  bane  of  human  happiness. 
I  wrote  to  my  brother  before  I  received  his  letter. 

19.  WhenGarrick  appeared,  Peter  was  for  sometime 
in  doubt  whether  it  could  be  him  or  not.    Was  you  liv- 
ing contented  in  spiritual  darkness  ?    The  company  was 
very  numerous.     Shall  the  throne  of  iniquity  have  fel- 
lowship with  thee,  which  frameth  mischief  by  a  law? 
Where  is  the  security  that  evil  habits  will  be  ever  bro- 
ken ?  Each  of  them  bring  material  to  the  place.     Nor 
let  no  comforter  delight  my  ear.  She  was  six  years  older 
than  him.    They  were  obliged  to  contribute  more  than 
us.    The  Barons  had  little  more  to  rely  on,  besides  the 
power  of  their  families.     The  sewers  must  be  kept  so 
clear,  as  the  water  may  run  away.    Such  among  us  who 
follow  that  profession.    No  body  is  so  sanguine  to  hope 
for  it.    She  behaved  unkinder  than  I  expected.  Agree- 
able to  your  request,  I  send  this  letter.    She  is  exceed- 
ing fair.   Thomas  is  not  as  docile  as  his    sister.  There 
was  no  other  book  but  his.  He  died  by  a  fever.  Among 
whom  was  Mary  Magdalene,  and  Mary  the  mother  of 
James.     My  sister  and  I  waited  till  they  were  called. 
The  army  were  drawn  up  in  haste.     The  public  is  re- 
spectfully informed  that,  &c.     The  friends  and  amuse- 
ments which  he  preferred  corrupted  his  morals.    Each 
must  answer  for  themselves.    Henry,  though  at  first  he 
showed  an  unwillingness,  yet  afterwards  he  granted  his 
request. 

20.  Him  and  her  live  very  happily  together.     She 
invited  Jane  and  I  to  see  her  new  dress.     She  uttered 


142  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [PROMIS. 

such  cries  that  pierced  the  heart  of  every  one  who  heard 
them.  Maria  is  not  clever  as  her  sister  Ann.  Though 
he  promises  ever  so  solemnly,  I  will  not  believe  him. 
The  full  moon  was  no  sooner  up,  in  all  its  brightness, 
but  he  opened  to  them  the  gate  of  paradise.  It  render- 
ed the  progress  very  slow  of  the  new  invention.  This 
book  is  Thomas',  that  is  James'.  Socrates's  wisdom  has 
been  the  subject  of  many  a  conversation.  Fare  thee 
well,  James.  Who,  who  has  the  judgment  of  a  man, 
would  have  drawn  such  an  inference  ?  George  was  the 
most  diligent  scholar  whom  I  ever  knew.  I  have  ob- 
served some  children  to  use  deceit.  He  durst  not  to 
displease  his  master.  The  hopeless  delinquents  might, 
each  in  their  turn,  adopt  the  expostulatory  language  of 
Job.  Several  of  our  English  words,  some  centuries  ago, 
had  different  meanings  to  those  they  have  now.  And  I 
was  afraid,  and  went  and  hid  thy  talent  in  the  earth  ;  lo, 
there  thou  hast  that  is  thine.  With  this  booty  he  made 
off  to  a  distant  part  of  the  country,  where  he  had  reason 
to  believe  that  neither  he  nor  his  master  were  known. 
Thine  is  the  kingdom,  the  power,  and  the  glory.  I  have  4 
been  at  London. 

21.  Which  of  the  two  masters,  says  Seneca,  shall  we 
most  esteem? — he  who  strives  to  correct  his  scholars 
by  prudent  advice  and  motives  of  honor,  or  he  who  will 
lash  them  severely  for  not  repeating  their  lessons  as  they 
ought  ?     The  blessing  of  the  Lord  it  maketh  rich,  and 
he  addeth  no  sorrow  with  it.     For  if  ther^  be  first  a 
willing  mind,  it  is  accepted  according  to  that  a  man  hath, 
and  not  according  to  that  he  has  not.     If  a  brother  or 
a  sister  be  naked  and  destitute  of  daily  food,  and  one  of 
you  say  unto  them,  Depart  in  peace,  be  ye  warmed  and 
filled ;  notwithstanding  if  ye  give  them  not  those  things 
which  are  needful  to  the  body,  what  doth  it  profit  ?  340. 

22.  But  she  always  behaved  with  great  severity  to 
her  maids ;  and  if  any  of  them  were  negligent  of  their 
duty,  or  made  a  slip  in  their  conduct,  nothing  would 
serve  her  but  burying  the  poor  girls  alive.     He  had  no 
master  to  instruct  him ;  he  had  read  nothing  but  the 
writings  of  Moses  and  the  prophets,  and  had  received 


PROMIS.]  SYNTAX.  143 

no  lessons  from  the  Socrates's,*  the  Plato's  and  the  Con- 
fucius's  of  the  age.  They  that  honor  me,  I  will  honor. 
For  the  poor  always  ye  have  with  you. 

23.  The  first  Christians  of  the  Gentile  world  made  a 
simple  and  entire  transition  from  a  state  as  bad,  if  not 
worse,  than  that  of  entire  ignorance,  to  the  Christianity 
of  the  New  Testament.    And  he  said  unto  Gideon,  every 
one  that  lappeth  of  the  water  with  his  tongue,  as  a  dog 
lappeth,  him  shalt  thou  set  by  himself. 

The  duke  had  not  .behaved  with  that  loyalty  as  was 
expected.  Milton  seems  to  have  been  well  acquainted 
with  his  own  genius,  and  to  know  what  it  was  that  na- 
ture had  bestowed  upon  him  more  bountifully  than  upon 
others. 

24.  And  on  the  morrow,  because  he  would  have  known 
the  certainty  wherefore  he  was  accusedf  of  the  Jews, 
he  loosed  him  from  his  bonds, 

Here  rages  force,  here  tremble  flight  and  fear, 
Here  stormed  contention,  and  here  fury  frowned: 
The  Cretan  javelin  reached  him  from  afar,^ 
And  pierced  his  shoulder  as  he  mounts  his  car. 

Nor  is  it  then  a  welcome  guest,  affording  only  an  uneasy 
sensation,  and  brings  always  with  it  a  mixture  of  con- 
cern and  compassion. 

He  onlyj  promised  me  a  loan  of  the  book  for  two 
days.  I  was  once  thinking  to  have  written  a  poem. 

25.  A  very  slow  child  will  often  be  found  to  get  les- 
sons by  heart  as  soon  as,  nay  sometimes  sooner  than, 
one  who  is  ten  times  as  intelligent. 

It  is  then  from  a  cultivation  of  the  perceptive  facul- 
ties, that  we  only  can  attain  those  powers  of  concep- 
tion which  are  essential  to  taste. 

No  man  is  fit  for  free  conversation  for  the  inquiry 

*The  possessive  case  must  not  be  used  for  the  plural  number.  In  this  quotation 
from  Baron  Haller's  Letters  to  his  Daughter,  the  proper  names  should  have  been 
phiralized  like  common  nouns;  thus,  From  the  Socrateses,  the  Platoes,  and  the 
Confuciuscs  of  the  age. 

t  Accused  requires  of  before  the  crime,  and  by  before  the  person  accusing. 

trf  his  sentence  expresses  one  meaning  as  it  stands.  It  may  be^  made  to  ex* 
press  other  four  by  placing  only  after  me,  or  loan,  or  book,  or  days. 


144  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  [PROMIS. 

after  truth  if  he  be  exceedingly  reserved;  if  he  be 
haughty  and  proud  of  his  knowledge  ;  if  he  be  positive 
and  dogmatical  in  his  opinions ;  if  he  be  one  who  always 
affects  to  outshine  all  the  company;  if  he  be  fretful 
and  peevish;  if  he  affect  wit,  and  is  full  of  puns,  or 
quirks,  or  quibbles. 

26.  Conversation  is  the  business,  and  let  every  one 
that  please  add  their  opinion  freely.     There  are  many 
more  shining  qualities  in  the  mind  of  man,  but  there  is 
none  so  useful  as  discretion. 

Mr.  Locke  having  been  introduced  by  Lord  Shafts- 
bury  to  the  Duke  of  Buckingham  and  Lord  Halifax, 
these  three  noblemen,  instead  of  conversing  with  the 
philosopher  on  literary  subjects,  in  a  very  short  tune 
sat  down  to  cards. 

BAD  ARRANGEMENT. 

27.  It  is  your  light  fantastic  fools,  who  have  neither 
heads  nor  hearts,  in  both  sexes,  who,  by  dressing  their 
bodies  out  of  all  shape,  render  themselves  ridiculous 
and  contemptible. 

And  how  can  brethren  hope  to  partake  of  their  pa- 
rent's blessing,  that  curse  each  other. 

The  superiority  of  others  over  us,  though  in  trivial 
concerns,  never  fails  to  mortify  our  vanity,  and  give 
us  vexation,  as  Nicol  admirably  observes. 

Likewise  also  the  chief  priests,  mocking,  said  among 
themselves,  with  the  scribes,  He  saved  others ;  himself 
he  can  not  save. 

Noah,  for  his  godliness,  and  his  family,  were  the  only 
persons  preserved  from  the  flood, 

It  is  an  unanswerable  argument  of  a  very  refined  age, 
the  wonderful  civilities  that  have  passed  between  the 
nation  of  authors,  and  that  of  readers. 

And  they  said  among  themselves,  Who  shall  roll  us 
away  the  stone  from  the  door  of  the  sepulchre  ?  And 
when  they  had  looked,  they  saw  that  the  stone  was 
rolled  away:  for  it  was  very  great. 

A  great  stone  that  I  happened  to  find,  after  a  long 
search,  by  the  sea-shore,  served  me  for  an  anchor 


PROMIS.J  &VNTAX.  145 

It  is  true  what  he  says,  but  it  is  not  applicable  to  the 
point.  Wanted  a  young  man  to  take  care  of  some  hor- 
ses, of  a  religious  turn  of  mind.  The  following  verses 
were  written  by  a  young  man  who  has  long  lain  in  the 
grave,  for  his  own  amusement.  He  rode  to  town  and 
drove  twelve  cows  on  horseback. 

BAD  ARRANGEMENT.* 

28.  The  Senate  of  Rome  ordered  that  no  part  of  it 
should  be  rebuilt ;  it  was  demolished  to  the  ground,  so 
that  travellers  are  unable  to  say  where  Carthage  stood 
at  this  day. 

Thus  ended  the  war  with  Antiochus,  twelve  years 
after  the  second  punic  war,  and  two  after  it  had  begun. 

Upon  the  death  of  Claudius,  the  young  Emperor 
Nero  pronounced  his  funeral  oration,  and  he  was  ca- 
nonized among  the  gods,  who  scarcely  deserved  the 
name  of  a  man. 

Galerius  abated  much  of  his  severities  against  the 
Christians  on  his  death-bed,  and  revoked  those  edicts 
which  he  had  formerly  published,  tending  to  their  per- 
secution, a  little  before  his  death. 

The  first  care  of  Aurelius  was  to  marry  his  daughter 
Lucilla  once  more  to  Claudius  Pompeianus  a  man  of 
moderate  fortune,  £c. 

But  at  length  having  made  his  guards  accomplices  in 
their  design,  they  set  upon  Maximin  while  he  slept  at 
noon  in  his  tent,  and  slew  both  him  and  his  son,  whom 
he  had  made  his  partner  in  the  empire,  without  any 
opposition. 

Aurelian  defeated  the  Marcomanni,  a  fierce  and  ter- 
rible nation  of  Germany,  that  had  invaded  Italy,  in 
three  several  engagements. 

AMBIGUITY. 

29.  You  suppose  him  younger  than  I. 

This  may  mean,  either  that  you  suppose  him  younger  than  1 
am,  or  that  you  suppose  him  to  b«  younger  than  I  suppose  him 
to  be. 

*  The  exercises  in  this  section  are  all  extractei  from  the  octavo  edition  of 
Goldsm.th's  Roman  History,  from  which  many  more  might  he  obtained. 

13 


140  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  §  86 

Parmenio  had  served,  with  great  fidelity,  Philip,  the 
father  of  Alexander,  as  well  as  himself,  for  whom  he 
first  opened  the  way  into  Asia. 

Here  we  are  apt  to  suppose  the  word  himself  refers  to  Parmenio, 
and  means  that  he  had  not  only  served  Philip •  but  he  had  served 
himself  ai  the  same  time.  This,  however,  is  not  the  meaning  of 
the  passage.  If  we  arrange  it  thus,  the  meaning  will  appear. 
"  Parmenio  had  not  only  served  Philip  the  father  of  Alexander 
with  great  fidelity,  but  he  had  served  .Alexander  himself \  and 
was  the  first  that  opened  the  way  for  him  into  Asia.'' 

Belisarius  was  general  of  all  the  forces  under  the 
emperor  Justinian  the  First,  a  man  of  rare  valor. 

Who  was  a  man  of  rare  valor?  The  emperor  Justinian  we 
should  suppose,  from  the  arrangement  of  the  wrords-,  but  this  is 
not  the  case,  for  it  was  Belisarius.  The  sentence  should  stand 
thus,  "  Belisarius,  a  man  of  rare  valor,  was  general  of  all  the 
forces  under  the  emperor  Justinian  the  First." 

Lisias  promised  to  his  father  never  to  abandon  his 
friends. 

Whether  were  they  his  own  friends  or  his  fathers  whom  Lisias 
promised  never  to  abandon?  If  his  own,  it  should  be,  Lisias  pro- 
mised and  said  to  his  father,  I  will  never  abandon  my  friends.  If 
his  father"1  s^  it  should  be,  Lisias  promised  and  said  to  his  father. 
I  will  never  abandon  your  friends. 

§  86.     MISCELLANEOUS  OBSEPvVATIONS. 

463.  1.  Many  writers  use  a  plural  noun  after  the  se- 
cond of  two  numeral  adjectives;  thus,  "  The  first  and 
second  pages  are  torn."  According  to  analogy  it  should 
be,  The  first  and  the  second  page  [449,  3],  Thus  we 
say,  "  The  new  and  the  old  world,"  "Ancient  and  mo- 
dern history,"  £c. 

2.  Another, — One, — Every. 

Another  corresponds  to  one  ;  but  not  to  some,  nor  to 
every.  Thus,  "  Handed  down  from  every  writer  of 
rerses  to  another,"  should  be,  "From  one  writer  of 
verses  to  another."  "At  some  hour  or  another,'9  should 
be,  "At  some  hour  or  other." 

One  is  oiten  used  in  familiar  phrases,  (like  on  in 
French,)  for  we,  or  any  one  of  us,  indiscriminately ' 
thus,  "  One  is  often  more  influenced  by  example  than 


§  86  SYNTAX.  147 

by  precept."  The  verb  and  pronoun  with  which  one 
agrees,  should  be  singular  ;  thus,  "  If  one  take  a  wrong 
method  at  first,  it  will  lead  them  astray,"  should  be, 
"it  will  lead  one  astray,"  or  "him  astray." 

3    As  follows, — As  regards, — As  appears,  <$  c. 

Dr.  Campbell  and  Mr.  Murray  regard  these,  and  se- 
veral other  expressions  of  a  similar  kind,  as  impersonal 
verbs,  and  are  of  opinion  that  they  should  always  be 
used  in  the  singular.  This,  however,  is  contrary  to  the 
established  usage  of  our  best  writers,  who  frequently 
use  them  in  the  plural  form ;  as,  "  The  circumstances 
were  as  follow."  Other  Grammarians,  and  particularly 
Dr.  Crombie  (Etymology,  p.  389  et  seq.),  consider  as  to 
be  a  relative  pronoun,  and  that  the  verb  following  it 
should  be  singular  or  plural,  according  as  its  antecedent 
is  in  the  singular  or  plural  number ;  thus,  "  His  descrip- 
tion was  as  follows,"  i.  e.  "was  this  which  follows." 
"  His  words  were  as  follow,"  i.  e.  "  were  those  which 
follow."  Neither  of  these  explanations  seems  to  be  en- 
tirely satisfactory.  It  is  perhaps  better  to  regard  such 
phrases  as  elliptical,  and  in  parsing  to  supply  the  ellip- 
sis thus,  "  The  words  were  such  as  those  which  follow," 
or,  "were  the  same  as  those  which  follow." 

As  concerns,  as  regards,  used  commonly  in  the  singu- 
lar, are  also  elliptical,  and  may  be  supplied  thus,  "As  it 
concerns,"  or  "  As  far  as  it  concerns,  regards,"  &c.  As 
(it)  appears,  is  always  in  the  singular.  In  the  plural, 
the  noun  or  pronoun  is  commonly  expressed  thus, 
"  These  things,  as  they  concern,"  or,  "  as  far  as  they 
concern  us ;"  or,  "As  far  as  these  things  concern  us,'* 
&c.  In  this  way,  there  is  no  necessity  for  considering 
these  expressions  as  impersonal  verbs,  nor  for  depriving 
as  of  its  conjunctive  character.  App.  XII. 

4.  So  and  Such. 

When  we  refer  to  the  species  or  nature  of  a  thing, 
the  word  such  is  properly  applied ;  as,  "  Such  a  temper 
is  seldom  found."  But  when  degree  is  signified,  we 
use  the  word  so ;  as,  "  So  bad  a  temper  is  seldom  found." 
Yet  so  is  hardly  ever  used  before  an  adjective  followed 


148  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  86 

by  a  plural  noun.  In  this  case,  such  is  used  instead  of 
it,  to  express  degree.  Thus,  we  say,  "  Such  beautiful 
flowers  1  have  seldom  seen ;"  not,  "  so  beautiful  flowers." 
Still  it  would  be  correct  to  say,  "  I  have  never  seen 
flowers  so  beautiful/' 

5.  Disappointed  of, — Disappointed  in. 

We  are  disappointed  of  a  thing,  when  we  expect  it 
and  do  not  get  it ;  and  disappointed  in  it,  when  we  have 
it,  and  it  does  not  answer  our  expectations.  Hence  a 
person  may  be  disappointed  in  that  which  he  is  not 
disappointed  of. 

6.   Taste  of,  and  Taste  for. 

A  taste  of  a  thing,  implies  actual  enjoyment  of  it ; 
but  a  taste  for  it,  implies  only  capacity  for  enjoyment ; 
as,  "  When  we  have  had  a  true  taste  of  the  pleasures 
of  virtue,  we  can  have  no  relish  for  those  of  vice." 
"  He  had  a  taste  for  such  studies,  and  pursued  them 
earnestly." 

7.  Position  of  Adjectives. 

Adjectives  should  be  placed  next  their  substantives. 
Thus,  it  is  incorrect  to  say,  "  a  new  pair  of  shoes,"  "  a 
fine  field  of  corn,"  "  a  good  glass  of  wine,"  &c.;  because 
the  adjectives  in  these  sentences  qualify  shoes,  corn, 
wine,  and  not  pair,  Jield,  glass,  with  which  they  are 
joined.  The  phrases  should  be,  "A  pair  of  new  shoes  ;" 
"A  field  of  fine  corn;"  "A  glass  of  good  wine." 

8.  Evt  that. 

But  is  often  improperly  used  before  that,  after  words 
which  imply  doubt  or  fear ;  as,  "  I  doubt  not  but  that 
he  "will  fulfil  his  promise."  This  would  seem  to  say. 
"  I  doubt  nothing  save  one  thing,  namely,  that  he  will 
fulfil  his  promise ;"  whereas,  that  is  the  very  thing  not 
doubted.  Remove  the  but,  and  you  preserve  the  sense. 

9.  Older,  Oldest,— Elder,  Eldest. 

Older  and  oldest  refer  to  maturity  of  age;  elder  and 
eldest,  to  priority  of  right  by  birth.  Thus,  "  Homer  is 


§  86.  SYNTAX.  149 

an  older  author  than  Virgil."    "Being  the  eldest  of  the 
family,  he  succeeded  to  the  estate." 

10.  Farther  and  Farthest, — Further  and  Furthest. 
Farther  and  farthest  denote  place  or  distance  ;  Fur* 
ther  and  furthest,  quantity  or  addition ;  as,  "  The  farther 
they  advanced,  the  more  interesting  was  the  scene." 
"  I  have  nothing  further  to  say  on  this  subject."  Far- 
ther is  the  comparative,  and  farthest,  the  superlative 
of  far  ;  Further  and  furthest,  of  fore  or  forth. 

11.  Later,  latest, — Latter,  last, — Next,  Nearest. 

Later  and  latest,  compared  from  late,  have  respect 
to  time ;  latter  and  last,  to  place  or  position,  and  are 
employed  without  so  direct  a  reference  to  comparison. 
Next  refers  either  to  time  or  place  ;  nearest,  to  place 
only. 

12.  Past,  passed. 

Pastissiu  adjective ;  passed,  the  past  tense  or  past 
participle  of  the  verb,  and  they  ought  not,  as  they  fre- 
quently are,  to  be  confounded  with  each  other. 

13.  Lay,  lie, — Set,  sit. 

Lay  and  lie  are  distinct  in  meaning  and  application, 
and  can  not  be  used  indiscriminately.  The  use  of  the 
former  for  the  latter  is  an  error  exceedingly  prevalent, 
and  should  be  corrected.  Thus  we  constantly  hear  such 
expressions  as,  "  It  lays  on  the  table  ;"  "  It  laid  there 
yesterday."  Lie  is  an  intransitive  verb;  Lay  is  tran- 
sitive, and  means  to  make  lie.  The  past  tense  of  lie 
is  lay,  and  past  participle  lain.  The  past  tense  of  lay 
is  laid,  and  past  participle  laid*  Thus,  The  bricklayer 
lays  bricks,  and  being  laid,  they  lie.  The  book  lies 
on  the  shelf;  it  was  laid  there  a  week  ago,  and  has 
lain  ever  since.  The  same  distinction  should  be  ob- 
served between  set  and  sit. 

14.  "Be  that  as  it  will,"  is  a  common,  but  inaccurate 
expression.    It  ought  to  be,  "  Be  that  as  it  may,"  or 
may  have  been. 

15.  "  Seldom  or  ever"  is  not  correct.     It  should  be 
seldom  or  never;  or,  seldom  if  ever, 

13* 


150 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


464.     §  87.  A  LIST  OF  IMPROPER  EXPRESSIONS 

SELECTED  CHIEFLY  FROM  PICKERING'S  VOCABULARY. 


I  should  admire  to  go  to  sea. 

I  allut  upon  going. 

The  alone  God.    The  alone  motive. 

I  an't  ;  you  an't ;  he  an}t,  &c. 

Any  manner  of  means. 

His  discourse  was  approbated. 

To  sell  at  auction. 

lie  was  walking  back  and  forth. 

Part  were  good,  the  balance  were  bad. 

His  argument  was  based  on  this  fact. 

Where  be  you?  Here  I  be. 

The  money  was  ordered  paid. 

I  would  not  be.little  or  demean  myself. 

He  was  paid  for  his  betterments. 

I  calculate  to  leave  town  soon. 

A  chunk  of  bread. 

A  clever*  house. 

He  conducts  ivell. 

He  is  considerable  of  a  scholar. 

His  farm  was  convenient  to  mine. 

The  creatures^  must  be  sent  to  pasture. 

Curious  apples;  curious  cider,  &c. 

He  is  a  decent  scholar,  writer. 

Her  situation  was  distressing  toadegree. 

Such  conduct  was  very  derogatory. 

A  total  destitution  of  capacity. 

The  United  States,  or  either  of  them. 

Equally  as  well — as  good,  £c. 

Mr.  B ,  Esq. 

I  think  it  will  eventuate  in  this. 
I  expect*  they  be. 

I  expect  lie  must  have  died  long  ago 
These  things  are  in  a  bad  fix. 
Will  you  fix  these  things  for  me? 
Firstly,  secondly,  thirdly,  &c. 
How  do  your  folks  do? 
What  do  folks  think  of  it? 
Will  you  go  by  and  dine  with  me? 
Talents  of  the  highest  grade. 
Do  you  love  play  ?  I  guess%  I  dp. 
You  will  tell  another  guess  (guise)  sto- 
ry soon. 

We  may  hope  the  assistance  of  God. 
A  horse  colt  /  A  mare  colt. 
It  would  illy  accord. 
When  did  you  come  in  town. 

In  good  case  ;  or  kelter. 

Where  do  you  keep  ? — put  up  ? — 

A  lengthy  sermon ,  &c. 


I  would  like  to  go  to  sea. 

I  Intend  to  go. 

The  one  God.     The  only  motive. 

1  am  not ;  you  are  not ;  he  is  not,  &c. 

Any  means. 

His  discourse  was  approved. 

To  sell  by  auction. 

backwards  and  forwards. 

the  remainder,  or  the  rest  were 

bad. 

His  argument  was  founded  on  this  fact. 
Where  are  you  ?    Here  I  am. 
The  money  was  ordered  to  be  paid. 
1  would  not  degrade  myself.  • 
He  was  paid  for  his  improvements 
I  intend  to  leave  town  soon. 
A  piece  of  bread. 
A  good  house. 

He  conducts  himself  well,  respectably. 
He  is  a  pretty  good  scholar. 
His  farm  was  contiguous  to  mine,  close 
The  cattle  must  be  sum  to  pasture. 
Excellent  apples,  excellent  cider.  &c. 
He  is  a  pretty  good  scholar,  writer. 

was  extremely  distressing 

•  was  very  degrading. 

A  total  want  of  capacity. 
The  United  States,  or  any  of  them 
Equally  well,  or  just  as  well,  &c. 
A B ,  Esq. 


-  will  end,  or  terminate,  in  this. 


I  believe  they  are. 

I  think  he  must  have  died,  &c. 

in  a  bad  state  or  condition. 

Will  you  put  these  things  in  order  for  me  ? 

First,  secondly,  &c. 

How  is  your  family  ? 

What  do  people  think  of  it? 

Will  you  go  by  my  house  and  dine? 

Talents  of  the  highest  order. 

there  is  no  doubt  of  that 

another  kind  of  story. 

We  may  hope  for  the  assistance  of  God. 

A  colt :  A  filly. 

It  would  ill  accord. 

When  did  you  come  into  town?    ($  77, 

Obs.  2.) 

In  good  condition,  good  order. 
At  whose  house  do  you  stay  ? 
A  long  sermon.  &c. 


*The  word  clever,   applied  to  persons,  in  the  English  sense,  means  active, 
quick,  ingenious  ;  in  the  American  sense,  of  a  kind,  obliging  disposition. 

tThis  word,  in  the  northern  states,  is  a  general  term  for  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
«win»,  &c. 

t  is  properly  applied  to  thing's  to  come  ;  guess,  to  things  uncertain,  never 
present,  or  about  which  there  is  no  doubt 


^88. 


SYNTAX. 


151 


Why  don't  you  strike  like  I  do? 

Be  is  a  very  likely  man. 

Will  you  loan  me  a  few  dollars? 

I  was  mad  at  him. 

Migkty  cold ;  mighty  fine. 

Obnoxious*  doctrines. 

He  will  once  in  a  while  get  drunk. 

He  went  up  on  to  the  roof 

What  had  that  ought  to  be  ? 

Over  the  signature  of  Junius.f 

He  still  plead  not  guilty. 

They  are  not  very  plenty. 

He  is  rather  poorly. 

Predicated  on  former  proceedings. 

The  work  progresses  slowly. 

Not  proven. 

I  was  raised  in  Virginia. 

A  commktee  was  raised. 

The  price  will  raise  soon. 

I  reckon  he  will. 

The  council  resulted,  that,  &c. 

Such  doctrine •«  revolt  us. 

A  rugged  child. 

I  sat  out  on  my  journey. 

The  market  is  full  of  sauce. 

You  have  too  much  sauce. 

I  see  him,  I  seen  him  yesterday. 

Serious  people. 

He  is  some  better  than  he  was. 

I  have  had  a  spell  of  sickness. 

Be  spry.     He  is  a  springy  man. 

He  shews  much  temper.^ 

He  is  an  v-gfy  fellow. 


—  as  I  do,  or,  like  as  I  do. 

He  is  a  very  good  looking  man. 

lend  me  a  few  dollars 

I  was  angry  with  him. 
Very  cold ;  very  fine. 
Hurtful  or  offensive  doctrines. 

sometimes  get  drunk. 

He  went  up  to  the  roof. 

What  should  that  be  ? 

Under  the  signature  of  Junius. 

pleaded  not  guilty. 

They  are  not  very  plentiful. 
— —  rather  indisposed. 
Founded  on  former  proceedings. 
The  work  advances  slowly. 
Not  proved. 
I  was  brought  up  in  Virginia. 

was  formed  or  appointed. 

will  rise  soon. 

I  suppose  he  will. 

came  to  the  conclusion,  that,  &  3. 

We  revolt  at  such  doctrines. 
A  robust  or  healthy  child. 
I  set  out,  &c. 

full  of  vegetables. 

•  too.  much  impertinence. 

I  saw  him  yesterday. 
Religious  people. 

somewhat  better. 

I  have  been  sick  for  some  time. 
Be  quick— an  active  man. 

much  warmth  of  temper. 

a  fellow  of  bad  disposition. 


§88.    PUNCTUATION. 

465.  Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  a  written 
composition  into  sentences,  or  parts  of  sentences,  by 
points  or  stops,  in  order  to  convey  to  the  reader  the 
exact  sense,  and  assist  him  in  the  proper  delivery. 

*Obnoxious  signifies  liable  to,  and  should  not  be  used  for  hurtful  or  offensive. 

tOn  this  expression,  Pickering  remarks :  "  A  few  of  our  writers  still  counte- 
nance  this  unwarrantable  innovation ;  but  the  principle  on  which  it  is  defended 
would  unsettle  the  whole  language.'7  We  might  with  equal  propriety  say,  "criven 
over  my  hand  and  seal."  "  It  is  so  well  known  to  be  the  constant  practice  of 
the  best  English  and  American  writers  to  say,  '  under  a  name,'  and  'under  a  sig. 
nature,'  that  it  will  hardly  be  credited  that  any  who  speak  the  English  language 
could  have  questioned  the  propriety  of  it."  The  term  under,  in  such  phrases,  'S 
figurative,  ailtt  means,  under  the  sanction,  authority,  or  responsibility  of.  It  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  mere  relative  position  of  the  writing,  and  the  name  or  sig- 
nature attached  to  it;  a  circumstance  in  itself  of  no  consequence  whatever,  but 
which,  nevertheless,  is  all  that  the  term  over  is  capable  of  expressing. 

\Tempe,r,  in  the  American  sense,  means  warmth  of  temper,  passion.  In  Eng- 
jand  it  means  ''moderation,  coolness."  In  this  sense  the  words  temperate  and 
aitemperate  arc  always  understood. 


15*2  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  88 

466.  The  principal  stops  are  the  following: 

The  Comma  (  ,  )  the  semicolon  (  ;  )  the  colon  (  :  ) 
the  period,  or  full  stop  (  .  )  the  note  of  interrogation 
(  ?  )  the  note  of  exclamation  (  !  ) 

467.  The  comma  represents  the  shortest  pause ;  the 
semicolon,  a  pause  double  that  of  the  comma;  the  colon, 
double  that  of  the  semicolon;  and  the  period,  double 
that  of  the  colon. 

468.  The  duration  of  the  pauses  must  be  left  to  the  taste  of  the 
reader  or  speaker. 

RULES  FOB,  THE  PROPER  PUNCTUATION  OF  A  COMPOSITION. 

THE  COMMA. 

469.  The  comma  usually  separates  those  parts  of  a 
sentence  which,  though  very  closely  connected  in  sense 
and  construction,  require  a  pause  between  them. 

470.  RULE  1.  A  simple  sentence,  when  it  is  a  short  one,  admits 
only  a  period  at  the  end-,  as,  "  No  state  of  life  is  exempt  from 
trouble." 

471.  When  a  simple  sentence  is  a  long  one,  and  the  nominative 
case  is  accompanied  by  inseparable  adjuncts,  a  comma  must  be  in- 
serted before  the  verb-,  as,  UA  steady  and  undivided  attention  to 
one  object,  is  a  sure  mark  of  superior  genius.    The  necessity  of  an 
early  acquaintance  with  history,  has  always  been  acknowledged." 

472.  NOTE.  By  the  term  adjunct, is  meant  any  number  of  words 
added  by  way  of  modifying  or  qualifying  the  principal  words  -,  thus, 
44  Cicero,  the  eloquent  Cicero,  suffered  an  ignominious  death  :"  the 
phrase,  the  eloquent  Cicero,  is  the  adjunct  of  Cicero  (484). 

473.  RULE  2.  The  simple  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are 
separated  by  commas-,  as,  u  When  the  graces  of  novelty  are  worn 
off,  admiration  is  succeeded  by  indifference."     u  Crafty  men  con- 
temn studies,  simple  men  admire  them,  and  wise  men  use  them." 

474.  But  when  the  members  are  closely  connected,  the  comma 
is  unnecessary-,  as,  u  Revelation  tells  us  how  we  may  obtain  hap- 
piness." 

475.  RULE  3.   Two  words  of  the  same  part  of  speech,  whether 
nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  participles,  or  adverbs,  do  not  admit  a 
comma  between  them  when  connected  by  a  conjunction  -,  as,  "  The 


§  88.  SYNTAX.  153 

earth  and  the  moon  are  planets."  "Time  brings  a  gentle  and 
powerful  opiate  to  all  misfortunes."  t;  The  man  of  order  catches 
and  arrests  the  hours  as  they  fly."  "  By  encouraging1  and  ani 
mating  him,  he  became  active."  "  Success  generally  depends  on 
acting  prudently  and  vigorously.'1'1  ic  We  must  live  either  virtu 
ously  or  viciously.'1'1 

476.  But  when  the  conjunction  is  not  expressed,  a  comma  is  in- 
serted between  the  words*,  as,  a  Reason^  passion, answer  one  great 
end."     u  He  is  a/??ain,  honest  man." 

477.  RULE  4.    Three  or  more  nouns,   adjectives,  verbs,  parti- 
ciples, or  adverbs,  with  or  without  a  conjunction,  are  separated  by 
commas;  as,  "Poetry,  music,  and  painting,  are  fine  arts."    "David 
was  a  brave,  wise,  and  prudent  prince."     "  The  sight,  the  hear- 
ing, the  feeling,  the  taste,  the  smell,  are  the  live  natural  senses." 

478.  When  words  are  connected  in  pairs,  there  is  a  comma  after 
each  pair  ;  as,  "  Anarchy  and  confusion,  poverty  and  distress,  deso 
lation  and  ruin,  are  the  consequences  of  civil  war.'' 

479.  RULE  5.  The  words  used  in  a  direct  address,  the  case  ab 
solute,  a  short  expression  in  the  manner  of  a  quotation,  and  tha 
infinitive  mood  absolute  when  it  is  not  used  as  a  nominative  case, 
should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas  •,    as, 
•l  My  son,  hear  the  counsels  of  thy  father."     "  I  remain,  Sir,  youi 
obedient  servant."     "  The  time  of  youth  being  precious,  we  should 
devote  it  to  the  purposes  of  improvement."    "  Plutarch  calls  lying, 
the  vice  of  slaves."1"1     "  To  enjoy  present  pleasure,  he  sacrificed 
future  ease  and  reputation." 

480.  RULE  6.  A  single  name  in  apposition  is  not  separated  by  a 
comma-,  as,   "  The  apostle  Peter 5"   "The  emperor  Antoninus." 
But  when  such  name  is  accompanied  with  an  adjunct,  the  adjunct 
should  have  a  comma  before  and  after  it ;  as  "Augustus,  the  Roman 
fmperor,  was  a  patron  of  the  fine  arts."     "  Paul,  the  apostle  of  the 
Gentiles,    was  eminent  for  his  zeal  and  knowledge." 

481.  RULE  7.   Simple  members  of  sentences  connected  bycom- 
oaratives,  and  phrases  placed  in  opposition  to,  or  in  contrast  with, 
each  other,  are  separated  by  commas-,  thus,  "  As  the  hart  panteth 
after  the  water  brooks,  so  cioth  my  soul  after  thee."     "  They  are 
sometimes  in  union  with,  an^  sometimes  in  opposition  to.  the 
vhwi  of  each  other." 

1  Th'uph  4e^p   y.t  clear ;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull ; 
Strong,  with-it  rage*,  without  o'erflowing,  full." 


154  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §88 

482.  When  one  word  follows  the  last  preposition  as  its  object 
a  comma  must  not  be  inserted  before  it-,  as,   u  He  was  much  at 
tached  to,  and  concerned  for  John." 

483.  When  the  members  of  comparative  sentences  are  short,  thf 
comma  is  omitted-,  as,  u  How  much  better  is  wisdom  than  gold.' 

484.  RULE  8.  All  adjuncts  or  explanatory  phrases,  either  at 
the  beginning,  middle,  or  end  of  a  simple  sentence,  are  separated 
from  it  by  commas-,  as,  u  With  gratitude,  I  remember  his  good- 
ness to  me.17     u  I  remember,  with  gratitude,    his  goodness  to 
me."     u  His  talents,  formed  for  great  enterprizes,  could  not  fail 
of  rendering  him  conspicuous."     "  Vices,  like  shadows,  towards 
the  evening    of  life,  grow  great  and  monstrous."     u  I    saw  the 
captain,  as  he  is  called." 

485.  A  comma  must  also  be  inserted  between  the  two  parts  of 
a  sentence,  which  have  their  natural  order  inverted -,  as,  uTo  God, 
nothing  is  impossible-,  that  is,   "  Nothing  is  impossible  to  God." 

486.  RULE  9.  A  comma  must  be  inserted  before  the  relative, 
when  the  clause  immediately  after  it  is  used  as  explanatory  of 
the  antecedent  clause-,  as,  "  He,  who  disregards  the  good  opinion 
of  the  world,  must  be  utterly  abandoned-,"  or,  u  He  must  be  ut- 
terly abandoned,  who  disregards  the  good  opinion  of  the  world." 

487.  But  when  the  relative  is  so  closely  connected  with  its  an 
tecedent.  that  it  can  not  be  transposed,  a  comma  must  not  be  in- 
serted before  it  •,  as,  "Self-denial  is  the  sacrifice  which  virtue  must 
make."    ;c  I  have  carefully  perused  the  book  which  you  lent  me." 

488.  RULE  10.  When  any  tense  of  the  verb  to  be  is  followed  by 
a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood,  which,  by  transposition,  might  be 
made  the  nominative  case  to  it,  the  former  is  generally  separated 
from  the  latter  verb  by  a  comma-,  as,  uThe  best  preservative  of 
health  is,  to  be  temperate  in  all  our  gratifications."     "  To  be 
temperate  in  all  our  gratifications,   is  the  best  preservative  of 
health." 

489.  RULE  11.  When  a  verb  is  understood,  a  comma  must  !>e 
inserted-,  as,  u  Reading  makes  a  full  man-,  conference,  a  ready 
man-,  and  writing,  an  exact  man." 

490.  RULE  12.  The  word  that,  used  as  a  conjunction,  is  preceded 
by  a  comma-,  as,  "  Be  virtuous,  that  you  may  be  happy." 

491.  Adverbs,  prepositions,  or  conjunctions,  used  to  connect  or 
introduce  a  new  member,  must  be  separated  from  the  preceding 
part  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma;  as,  u  The  instructions  of  ad- 


$  88.  SYNTAX.  15S 

versity  may  be  wholesome,    though  unpleasing.'r     lt  The  wise 
man  seeketh  wisdom,  but  the  fool  despiseth  understanding," 

492.  RULE  13.  The  words  nay,  so,  hence,  again,  first,  secondly^ 
formerly,  now,  lastly,  in  fact,  therefore,   wherefore,  however,  be- 
sides, indeed,  and  all  other  words  and  phrases  of  the  same  kind, 
must,  when  considered  of  importance,  be  separated  from  the  con- 
text by  a  comma,  according  to  rule  8th  j  as,  "  Besides,  our  repu- 
tation does  not  depend  on  the  caprice  of  man,  but   on  our  own 
good  actions."     "  Lastly,  strive  to  preserve  a  conscience  void  of 
offence  towards  God  and  man."     "  If  the  spring   put  forth  no 
blossoms,  in  summer  there  will  be  no  beauty,  and  in  autumn,  no 
fruit  5  so,  if  youth  be  trifled  away  without   improvement,  riper 
years  may  be  contemptible,  and  old  age  miserable." 

493.  When,  however,    these  phrases  are  not  considered  im- 
portant, and  particularly  in   short  sentences,  the  comma  is  not 
inserted-,  as,   u  There  is   surely  a   pleasure  in   acting   kindly." 
"  Idleness  certainly  is  the  mother  of  all  vices."     u  He  was  at 
last  convinced  of  his  error." 

494.*** The  foregoing  rules  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  found  comprehensive;  yet 
there  may  be  some  cases  in  which  the  student  must  rely  on  his  own  judgment. 

In  composing  works  for  the  press,  many  authors  merely  insert  a  period  at  the 
end  of  each  sentence,  and  leave  the  rest  to  be  pointed  by  the  printers,  who,  from 
their  constant  practice,  are  supposed  to  have  acquired  a  uniform  mode  of  punc- 
tuation. 

THE  SEMICOLON. 

495.  The  semicolon  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of 
a  sentence,  which  are  less  closely  connected  than  those 
which  are  separated  by  a  comma. 

496.  RULE  1.  When  the  first  division  of  a  sentence  contains  a 
complete  proposition,  but  is  followed  by  a  clause  which  is  added 
as  an  inference,  or  to  give  some  explanation,  the  two  parts  must 
be  separated  by  a  semicolon-,  as,  "  Perform  your  duty  faithfully-, 
for  this  will  procure  you  the  blessing  of  heaven."     "  The  orator 
makes  the  truth  plain  to  his  hearers-,  he  awakens  them;  he  ex- 
cites them  to  action-,  he  shews  them  their  impending  danger." 
u  Be  in  peace  with  many-,  nevertheless,  have  but  one  counsellor 
of  a  thousand." 

497.  RULE  2.    When  several  short  sentences  follow  each  other, 
having  merely  a  slight  connection  in  idea,  though  in  other  respects 
complete  in  themselves,  they  may  be  separated  by  a  semicolon; 
as,   "Every  thing  grows  old-,  every  thing  passes  away;  ever* 


156  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  88 

thing  disappears."  u  The  epic  poem  recites  the  exploits  of  a  hero; 
tragedy  represents  a  disastrous  event  •,  comedy  ridicules  the  vices 
and  follies  of  mankind  ;  pastoral  poetry  describes  rural  life  j  and 
elegy  displays  the  tender  emotions  of  the  heart. 

THE  COLON. 

498.  The  colon  is  used  to  divide  a  sentence  into  two 
or  more  parts,  less  connected  than  those  which  are  se- 
parated by  a  semicolon,  but  not  so  independent  as  to 
require  a  period. 

499.  RULE  1.  A  colon  is  used  when  a  member  of  a  sentence 
is  complete  in  itself,  both  in  sense  and  construction,  but  is  fol- 
lowed by  some  additional  remark  or  illustration,  depending  upon 
it  in  sense,  though  not  in  syntax-,  as,  "A  brute  arrives  at  a  point 
of  perfection  that  he  can  never  pass :  in  a  few  years  he  has  all  the 
endowments  he  is  capable  of,  and  were  he  to  live  ten  thousand 
more,  would  be  the  same  thing  he  is  at  present."    "  Study  to  ac- 
quire a  habit  of  thinking:  no  study  is  more  important." 

500.  RULE  2.   When  a  sentence  contains  several  perfect  mem- 
bers separated  by  semicolons,  the  concluding  member  requires  a 
colon  before  it;  as,  UA  Divine  Legislator,  uttering  his  voice  from 
heaven ,  an  Almighty  Governor  stretching  forth  his  arm  to  pu- 
nish or  reward ;  informing  us  of  perpetual  rest  prepared  hereafter 
for  the  righteous,  and  of  indignation  and  wrath  awaiting  the 
wicked:  these  are  the  considerations  which  overawe  the  world, 
which  support  integrity  and  check  guilt." 

501.  RULE  3.    Either  the  colon  or  semicolon  may  be  used  when 
an  example,  a  quotation,  or  a  speech  is  introduced;  as,  "Always 
remember  this  ancient  maxim;   "Know  thyself."     u  The  scrip- 
tures give  us  an  amiable  representation  of  the  Deity,  in  these 
words:  '  God  is  Jove.'" 

502.  RULE  4,  The  insertion  or  omission  of  a  conjunction  be- 
fore the  concluding  member  of  a  sentence,  frequently  determines 
the  use  of  the  colon  or  semicolon.     When  the  conjunction  is  not 
expressed  before  the  concluding  member,  the  colon  is  to  be  usedj 
but  when  it  is  expressed,  the  semicolon  is  used;  as,  "Apply  your- 
self to  learning  :  it  will  redound  to  your  honor."    u  Apply  your- 
self to  learning;  for  it  will  redound  to  your  honor." 


$  88.  SYNTAX.  157 

THE  PERIOD. 

503.  When  a  sentence  is  complete,  with  respect  to 
the  construction  and  the  sense  intended,  a  period  must 
be  used;  as,  "God  made  all  things."    "By  disappoint- 
ments and  trials,  the  violence  of  our  passions  is  tamed." 
"  In  the  varieties  of  life,  we  are  inured  to  habits  both 
of  the  active  and  the  passive  virtues." 

504.  A  period  is  sometimes  inserted  between  sentences  which 
are  connected  by  conjunctions ;  as,  "  Our  position  is,  that  happi- 
ness does  not  consist  in  greatness.     JLnd  this  position  we  make 
out  by  shewing,  that  even  what  are  supposed  to  be  the  peculiar 
advantages  of  greatness,  the  pleasures  of  ambition  and  superior- 
ity, are  in  reality  common  to  all  conditions.     But  whether  the 
pursuits  of  ambition  are  ever  wise,  whether  they  contribute  more 
to  the  happiness  or  misery  of  the  pursuers,  is  a  different  question  5 
and  a  question  concerning  which  we  may  be  allowed  to  entertain 
great  doubt." 

505.  The  period  must  be  used  after  all  abbrevia- 
tions; as,  "A.  D."     "M.  A."     "FoL" 

506.          OTHER  CHARACTERS  USED  IN  COMPOSITION. 

Interrogation  (?)  is  used  when  a  question  is  asked. 

Admiration  (!)  or  Exclamation,  is  used  to  express  any  sudden  emotion  of  tho 
mind. 

Parenthesis  (  )  is  used  to  enclose  some  necessary  remark  in  the  body  "of  another 
sentence ;  commas  are  now  commonly  used  instead  of  parentheses 

Apostrophe  (')  is  used  in  place  of  a  letter  left  out;  as  lov'd  for  loved. 

Caret  (A)  is  used  to  show  that  some  word  is  either  omitted  or  interlined. 

Hyphen  (-)  is  used  at  the  end  of  a  line,  to  show  that  the  rest  of  the  word  is  at  the 
beginning  of  the  next  line.  It  also  connects  compound  words ;  as,  Tea* 
pot  ;  Father-in-law. 

Section  ($)  is  used  to  divide  a  discourse  or  chapter  into  portions 

Paragraph  (H)  is  used  to  denote  the  beginning  of  a  new  subject. 

Crotchets  ([  ])  or  Brackets,  are  properly  used  to  enclose  a  word  or  phrase  inteipo 
lated  for  the  purpose  of  explanation,  correction,  or  supplying  a  deficiency 
in  a  sentence  quoted  or  regarded  as  such,  and  which  did  not  belong  to 
the  original  composition;  thus,  It  is  said,  "  The  wisest  men  [and,  it 
might  be  added,  the  best  too]  are  not  exempt  from  human  frailty.' ' 

Quotation  ("  ")  is  used  to  show  that  a  passage  is  quoted  in  the  author's  words, 
cr  to  mark  a  passage  regarded  as  a  quotation. 

Tndex  (O"" )  is  used  to  point  out  any  thing  remarkable. 

( is  used  to  connect  words  which  have  one  common  term,  or  three'ltnes  I* 
M'  I          poetry,  having  the  MKM  rhyme-,  called  tho  uyleu 

14 


158 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Ellipsis  ( )  is  used  when  some  letters  are  omitted;  as,  K — g  for  King. 

Acute  accent  (')  is  used  to  denote  a  short  syllable;  the  grave  D  a  long. 
Breve  (*")  marks  a  short  vowel  or  syllable,  and  the  Macron,  (-)  a  long. 
Dicsresis  (  "  )  is  used  to  divide  a  diphthong  into  two  syllables ;  as,  aerial. 
Asterisk  (*)— Obelisk  It)— Double  Dagger  (J)— and  Parallels  (||)  with  small  let 
Urs  midfigures,  refer  to  some  note  on  the  margin,  or  at  the  bottom  of  tha 
page. 
***)  Two  or  three  asterisks  denote  the  omission  of  some  letters  in  some  bold  or 

indelicate  expression,  or  some  defect  in  the  manuscript. 

Dash  (  — )  is  used  to  denote  abruptness— a  significant  pause  —  an  unexpected 
turn  in  the  sentiment — or  that  the  first  clause  is  common  to  all  the  rest, 
as  in  this  definition  of  a  dash. 
507.  ABBREVIATIONS. 

Latin. 


Ante  Christum* 

A.  C. 

Before  Christ 

Artium  Baccalaureus 
Anno  Domini 

A.  B. 
A.  D. 

Bachelor  of  Arts  (often  B.  A.) 
In  the  year  of  our  Lord 

Artium  Magister 

A.  M. 

Master  of  Arts 

Anno  Mundi 

A.  M. 

In  the  year  of  the  world 

Ante  Meridiem 

A.  M. 

In  the  forenoon 

Anno  Urbis  Conditce 

A.  U.  C. 

In  the  year  after  the  building  of  the  city 

Baccalaureus  Divimtatis 

B.  D. 

Bachelor  of  Divinity                  [  —  Rome 

Custos  Privati  Sigilli 

C.  P.  9. 

Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal 

Gustos  Sigilli 

C.  S. 

Keeper  of  the  Seal 

Doctor  Divinitatis 

D.D. 

Doctor  of  Divinity 

Exempli  gratia                        e.  g. 
Regioe  Societatis  Socius         R.  S.  S. 
Regice  Societatis  Antiquario-R.  S.  A. 

For  example 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
S.Fellow  of  the  Royal  Socie?r  **  AWL 

rum  Socius 

quarics 

Georgius  Rex 

G.R. 

George  the  King 

Id  est 

i.  e. 

That  is 

Jesus  Hominum  Salvator 

J.  H.  S. 

Jesus  the  Saviour  of  men 

Legum  Doctor 

L.  L.  D. 

Doctor  of  Laws 

Locus  Sigilli 

•L.  S. 

Place  of  the  Seal 

Messieurs  [French] 

Messrs 

Gentlemen 

Medicinae  T)octor 

M.  D. 

Doctor  of  Medicine 

Memoriae  Sacrum 

M.  S. 

Sacred  to  the  Memory  (or  3.  M.) 

Nota  Bene 

N.B. 

Note  well  :  Take  notiw 

Post  Meridiem 

P.  M. 

In  the  afternoon 

Post  Scriptum 

P.S. 

Postscnptjsomothing  written  afte» 

Ultimo 

Ult. 

Last,  (mon.*b) 

Et  Csetera 

&c.  &c. 

And  the  rest  ;  and  so  for'h 

A.  Answer,  Alexander 

L.  C.  J. 

Lord  Chief  Justice 

Acct.    Account 

Knt. 

Knight 

Bart.    Baronet 
Bp.    Bishop 

K.  G. 
K.  B. 

Knight  of  the  Garter 
Knight  of  the  Bath 

Capt.    Captain 

K.  C.  B. 

Knt.  Commander  of  the  Bath 

Col.    Colonel 

K.  C. 

Knt.  of  the  Crescent 

Cr.    Creditor 

K.  P. 

Knight  of  St.  Patrick 

Dr.    Debtor,  Doctor 

K.  T. 

Knight  of  the  Thistle 

Do.  or  Ditto.    The  same 

MS.  a 

Manuscript 

Viz.j    Namely 

MSS. 

Manuscripts 

Q.       Question,  Qusen 

N.  S. 

New  Style 

R.  N.  Royal  Navy 

O.  S. 

Old  Style 

Esq.    Esquire 

J.  p. 

Justice  of  the  Peace 

*The  Latin  of  these  Abbreviations  is  inserted,  not  to  be  got  by  heart,  but  t* 
show  the  etymology  of  the  English;  or  explain,  for  instance  how  P.  M.  comes  to 
mean  Afternoon,  &  ' 

tContnctetl  from 


§  89  SYNTAX.  lt>t) 

508.  PARAGRAPHS. 

•  Different  subjects,  unless  they  are  very  short,  or  very  numer- 
ous, should  be  separated  into  paragraphs. 

When  one  subject  is  continued  to  a  considerable  length,  the 
hifger  divisions  of  it  should  be  put  into  distinct  paragraphs. 

The  facts,  premises,  and  conclusions,  of  a  subject,  sometimes 
naturally  point  out  the  separations  into  paragraphs:  and  each  of 
these,  when  of  great  length,  will  again  require  subdivisions  at 
the  most  distinctive  parts. 

In  cases  which  require  a  connected  subject  to  be  formed  into 
several  paragraphs,  a  suitable  turn  of  expression,  exhibiting  the 
connection  of  the  broken  parts,  will  give  beauty  and  force  to  the 
division. 

509.  §  89.     CAPITALS, 

Formerly  every  noun  began  with  a  capital  letter, 
both  in  writing  and  hi  printing ;  but  at  present  only  the 
following  words  begin  with  capital  letters : — 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter, 
note,  or  other  piece  of  writing. 

2.  The  first  word  after  a  period;  also  after  a  note 
of  interrogation,  or  exclamation,  when  the  sentence  be- 
fore, and  the  one  after  it,  are  independent  of  each  other. 

But  if  several  interrogative  or  exclamatory  sentences  arc  so  connected,  that 
the  latter  sentences  depend  on  the  former,  all  of  them,  except  the  first,  may  begin 
with  a  small  letter ;  as,  "  How  doth  the  city  sit  solitary,  that  was  full  of  people 
how  are  her  habitations  become  as  desolate !  how  is  she  become  as  a  widow ! 

3.  Proper  names,  that  is,  names  of  persons,  places, 
ships,  &c. 

4.  The  pronoun  I,  and  the  interjection  0,  are  writ- 
ten in  capitals. 

5.  The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry. 

6.  The  appellations  of  the  Deity  ;   as,  God,  Most 
High,  the  Almighty,  the  Supreme  Being,  &c. 

7.  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  pla- 
ces ;  as,  Grecian,  Roman,  English,  &c. 

8.  The  first  word  of  a  quotation,  introduced  after  a 


160  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  90,  91. 


colon  ;  as,  Always  remember  this  ancient  maxim  :  "J 
thyself." 

When  a.  quotation  is  not  introduced  in  the  direct  form,  but  follows  a  comma,  the 
first  word  must  not  begin  with  a  capital  ;  as,  Solomon  observes,  that  '  prido 
goes  before  destruction.' 

9.  Common  nouns  when  personified;  as,  "Come,  gen- 
tle Spring." 

10.  Every  substantive  and  principal  word  in  the  ti- 
tles of  books;  as,  "Euclid's  Elements  of  Geometry;" 
"  Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village." 

NOTE.  Other  words,  besides  the  preceding,  may  begin  with  capitals,  when 
they  are  remarkably  emphatical,  or  the  principal  subject  of  the  composition. 

§  90.    RHETORICAL  DIVISIONS  OF  A  DISCOURSE. 

510.  The  principal  parts  of  a  discourse  are  generally  six  in 
number,  viz.  the  Exordium,  the  Narration,  the  Proposition,  the 
Confirmation,  the  Refutation,  and  the  Peroration. 

511.  The  Exordium,  or  beginning  of  a  discourse,  is  the  part  in 
which  the  writer  or  speaker  gives  some  intimation  of  his  subject, 
and  solicits  the  favor  and  attention  of  his  audience  or  readers. 

512.  The  Narration  is  a  brief  recital  of  all  the  facts  connected 
with  the  case,  from  beginning  to  end. 

513.  The  Proposition  is  the  part  in  which  is  given  the  true 
state  of  the  question,  specifying  the  points  maintained,  and  those 
in  which  the  writer  or  speaker  differs  from  his  adversary, 

514.  The  Confirmation  assembles  all  the  proofs  and  arguments 
that  can  be  adduced  in  support  of  what  has  been  attempted  to  be 
established.    The  stronger  begin  and  end  this  part,  and  the  weaker 
are  reserved  for  the  middle. 

515.  The  Refutation  is  the  part  in  which  the  writer  or  speaker 
answers  the  arguments  and  objections  of  his  opponent. 

516.  In  the  Peroration  or  Conclusion,  he  sums  up  the  principal 
arguments,  and  endeavors  to  excite  the  passions  of  his  reader  or 
hearer  in  his  favor. 

$  91.    DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  COMPOSITION. 

517.  All  Composition,  whether  spoken  or  written,  is  of  two 
kinds,  either  Prose  or  Poetry. 

518.  Prose  compositions  are  those  in  which  the  thoughts  and 
sentiments  are  expressed  in  common  and  ordinary  language. 


$  91.  SYNTAX.  161 

519.  Poetic  compositions  are  those  in  which  the  thoughts  and 
sentiments  are  expressed  by  such  a  selection  and  arrangement  oi 
words  as  pleases  the  ear  and  captivates  the  fancy. 

520.  Thousands  write  and  speak  prose,  for  one  who  does  so  in 
verse  ;  yet  it  is  generally  allowed  that  poetic  compositions,  in  all 
countries,  have  preceded  those  of  prose. 

521.  Compositions,  whether  in  prose  or  poetry,  are  divided  into 
different  classes,  and  arranged  under  various  heads. 

I.  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  PROSE  COMPOSITION.' 

522.  The  different  kinds  into  which  prose  compositions  may  be 
divided,  are,  Narrative,  Letters,  Memoirs,  History,  Biography, 
Essays,  Philosophy,  Sermons,  Novels,  and  Speeches  or  Orations. 

523.  NARRATIVE  is  a  plain  and  simple  statement  of  such  facts 
and  occurences  as  a  person  may  have  either  seen  or  heard,  and  in- 
cludes in  it  Voyages  and  Travels  of  all  descriptions. 

524.  LETTERS  are  those  easy  and  familiar  compositions  which 
pass  from  one  person  to  another,  and  may  be  appropriated  to  every 
description  of  subject,  though  generally  relating  to  the  common 
and  ordinary  occurrences  of  life  and  business. 

525.  MEMOIRS  consist  of  loose  and  familiar  records  of  indivi- 
duals or  nations,  without  that  regularity  of  method  which  history 
and  biography  require. 

526.  HISTORY  is  a  regular  account  of  the  past  transactions  of 
some  particular  age  or  nation,  and  details  chiefly  plans  of  govern- 
ment, movements  of  armies,  and  events  of  great  general  interest. 

527.  BIOGRAPHY  is  a  particular  species  of  history,  and  consists 
oi  an  account  of  the  birth,  death,  and  most  important  occurrences 
in  the  life  of  some  eminent  individual. 

528.  ESSAY  means  trial  or  attempt,  and  is  a  modest  term  as- 
sumed at  the  pleasure  of  the  writer,  as  the  title  of  almost  any 
species  of  composition,  though  it  is  generally  employed  to  denote 
such  writings  as  the  Spectator,  Rambler,  etc. 

529.  PHILOSOPHY,  or  Philosophical  Compositions  are  those  in 
which  the  principles  of  art  and  science  are  inculcated,  and  the  va- 
rious phenomena  of  the  natural  and  moral  world  investigated. 

530.  SERMONS  are  illustrations  of  some  doctrine  of  Scripture, 
or  exhortations  to  the  practice  of  some  moral  and  religious  duty, 
enjoined  by  Christianity. 

531.  NOVELS  are  those  compositions  which  give  an  account  of 
characters  and  events  that  have  in  reality  never  existed,  but  hav* 

14* 


163  ^NGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  91. 

Deen  invented  or  supposed  by  the  author,  for  the  purpose  eitner 
of  affording  pleasure,  or  inculcating  some  important  lesson. 

532.  SPEECHES  AND  ORATIONS  are  those  addresses  which  are 
made  either  at  the  Bar  or  in  Public  Assemblies,  for  the  purpose 
of  persuading  the  hearers  of  the  truth  of  certain  opinions,  or  lead 
ing  to  the  adoption  of  certain  modes  of  action. 

II.  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  POETRY. 

533.  The  different  kinds  into  which  poetry  may  be  divided,  are 
the  Epigram,  the  Epitaph,  the  Sonnet-,  Pastoral,  Didactic,  Satiric, 
Descriptive,  Elegiac,  Lyric,  Dramatic,  and  Epic,  or  Heroic  poetry. 

534.  An  EPIGRAM  is  a  short,  witty  poem,  the  point  or  humour 
of  which  is  brought  out  in  the  concluding  lines. 

535.  An  EPITAPH  is  an  inscription  on  a  tombstone,  in  comme- 
moration of  some  departed  person. 

536.  The  SONNET,  which  is  of  Italian  origin,  means  a  little 
song,  and  consists  generally  of  fourteen  lines,  constructed  in  a 
peculiar  manner. 

537.  PASTORAL  POETRY  is  that  which  relates  to  rural  life-,  though 
it  sometimes  assumes  the  form  of  a  simple  song  or  ballad. 

538.  DIDACTIC  POETRY  is  that  by  which  some  art  or  duty  is  in- 
culcated •,  and,  though  forming  a  distinct  class  of  itself,  yet  its 
characteristics  are  so  general  as  to  extend  to  .almost  every  descrip- 
tion of  poetry. 

539.  SATIRES  are  poems  intended  to  ridicule  vices  and  follies, 
and  hold  them  up  to  contempt.     They  have  been  divided  into  two 
classes-,  the  jocose  or  ludicrous,  and  the  serious  or  declamatory. 

540.  DESCRIPTIVE  POETRY  maybe  classed  under  two  divisions; 
that,  by  which  is  offered  to  our  view  a  delineation  of  nature,  or 
of  natural  scenery,  and  that,  by  which  are  described  the  manners, 
sentiments,  and  passions  of  men. 

541.  ELEGY  was  first  employed  in  lamentation  for  the  decease 
of  great  persons,  or  of  those  who  were  particularly  dear  to  the 
writer;   but  it  was  afterwards  extended  in  its  application,  and 
employed  to  express  the  misery  of  disappointed  love,  and  even  at 
times  made  the  vehicle  of  moral  sentiment. 

542.  LYRIC  POETRY  is  such  as  may  be  sung  or  set  to  music, 
which  both  the  term  orfe,  and  the  epithet  lyric,  from  lyre,  a  mu- 
sical instrument,  imply.     There  is  the  serious  and  sublime  ode, 
and  the  familiar  and  comic  vhich,  in  modern  language,  is  de- 
nominated the  song. 


§  92.  SYNTAX.  163 

543.  By  DRAMATIC  POETRY  is  generally  meant  a  poem  in  blank 
verse  or  rhyme,  called  a  play,  and  fitted  for  representation  on  the 
stage.    It  is  of  two  kinds,  Tragic  and  Comic. 

544.  An  EPIC  POEM,  is  a  historical  representation  or  descrip- 
tion of  some  great  and  important  action,  involving  the  interests 
of  the  whole,  or  of  a  large  portion,  of  mankind. 

§92.    FIGURES. 

545.  A  FIGURE  in  grammar,  is  some  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  form,  or  construction,  or  appli- 
cation of  words,  in  a  sentence,  for  the  purpose  of 
greater  precision,  variety,  or  elegance  of  expression. 

546.  There  are  three  kinds  of  Figures;  viz.  of  Ety- 
mology, of  Syntax,  and   of  Rhetoric.     The  first  and 
the  second  refer  to  the  form  of  words,  or  to  their  con- 
struction,  the  last  to  their  application. 

FIGURES  OF  ETYMOLOGY. 

547.  A  Figure  of  Etymology  is  a  departure  from  the 
tosual  or  simple  form  of  words,  merely. 

548.  Of  these  the  most  important  are  eight,  viz. . 
A-phar-e-sis,  Pros-the-sis,  Syn-co-pe,  A-poc-o-pe,  Par-a- 
go-ge,  Di~ar-e-sis,  Syn-ar-e-sis,  and  Tme-sis. 

1 .  dphceresis  is  the  elision  of  a  syllable  from  the  beginning  of 
a  word-,    as,    Against,  'gan,  'bove,  'neath,    for   against,    began% 
above,  beneath. 

2.  Prosthesis  is  the  prefixing  of  a  syllable  to  a  word ;  as,  adown^ 
agoing,  etc.,  for  down,  going,  etc. 

3.  Syncope  is  the  elision  of  a  letter  or  syllable,  usually  a  short 
one,  from  the  middle  of  a  word-,  as,  medicine,  spirit,  e'en,  for 
medicine,  spirit,  even. 

4.  Apocope  is  the  elision  of  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  end  of 
a  word-,  as,  tho^  for  though,  tW  for  the. 

5.  Paragoge  is  the  annexing  of  a  syllable  to  the  end  of  a  word$ 
as,  deary,  for  dear. 

6.  Diaresis  is  the  division  of  two  concurrent  vowels  into  dif- 
ferent syllables,  usually  marked  thus  (  ••  )  on  the  second  vowel j 
as,  cooperate,  atirial. 


164  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  §  92, 

7.  Synaresis  is  the  joining  of  two  syllables  into  one,  in  either 
orthography  or  pronunciation  •,  as,  dost,  seest,  for  doest^  segst;  or, 
loved,  learned,  pronounced  in  one  syllable  instead  of  two,  lov-ed, 
learn-ed. 

8.  Tmesis  is  separating  the  parts  of  a  compound  word  by  an 
intervening  term-,  as,  u  What  time  soever  ;"  "  On  which  side 
soever;"  "  To  us  ward." 

FIGURES  OF  SYNTAX. 

549.  A  Figure  of  Syntax  is  a  deviation  from  the 
usual  construction  of  words  in  a  sentence,  used  for  the 
sake  of  greater  beauty  or  force. 

550.  Of  these,  the  most  important  are  Ellipsis,  Pleo- 
nasm, Syllepsis,  Enallage,  and  Hyperbaton. 

1.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  words  necessary  to  the  full  con 
struction  of  a  sentence,  but  not  necessary  to   convey  the  idea 
intended.     Such  words  are   said   to  be  understood-,    as;  "  The 
men,  women,  and  children,"  for  "  The  men,  the  women,  and  the 
children." 

2.  Pleonasm  is  the  using  of  more  words  than  are  necessary  to 
the  full  construction  of  a  sentence,  to  give  greater  force  or  em 
phasis  to  the  expression-,  as,  "  The  boy,  oh!  where  was  he  ?  " 

3.  Syllepsis  is  an  inferior  species  of  personification,  by  which 
we  conceive  the  sense  of  words  otherwise  than  the  words  import, 
and  construe  them  according  to  the  sense  conceived.  Thus,  of  the 
sun,  we  say,  "  He  shines ;"  of  a  ship,  "  She  sails"  (§  7.  Obs.  2). 

4.  Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another,  or  of 
one  modification  of  a  word  for  another-,  as  an  adjective  for  an  ad 
verb,  thus-.  u  They  fall  successive,  and  successive  rise,"  for  suc- 
cessively /  the  use  of  we  and  you  in  the  plural,  to  denote  an  indi- 
vidual, etc.  ($  15.  Obs.  3-4). 

5.  Hyperbaton  is  the  transposition  of  words  and  clauses  in  a 
sentence,  to  give  variety,  force,  and  vivacity,  to  the  composition  j 
as,  "  Now  come  we  to  the  last."     "  A  man  he  was  to   all  the 
country  dear."     "  He  wanders  earth  around." 

FIGURES  OF  RHETORIC. 

551.  A  Figure  of  Rhetoric  is  a  deviation  from  the 
ordinary  application  of  words  in  speech,  to  give  anima- 


§  92.  SYNTAX.  165 

tion,  strength,  and'beauty,  to  the  composition.     These 
figures  are  sometimes  called  tropes. 

552.  Of  these,  the  most  important  are  the  following, 
viz  : 

Personification,     Hyperbole,  Climax, 

Simile,  Irony,  Exclamation, 

Metaphor,  Metonymy,  Interrogation, 

Allegory,  Synecdoche,  Paralepsis, 

Vision,  Antithesis,  Apostrophe. 

1.  Personification,  or  prosopopoeia,  is  that  figure  of  speech  by 
which  we  attribute  life  and  action  to  inanimate  objects-,  as,  u  The 
sea  saw  it,  and  fled." 

2.  A  simile  expresses  the  resemblance  that  one  object  bears  to 
another;  as,  "He  shall  be  like  a  tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of  water." 

3.  A  metaphor  is  a  simile  without  the  sign  [like,  or  as,  etc.] 
of  comparison;  as,  u  He  shall  be  a  tree  planted  by,"  etc. 

4.  An  allegory  is  a  continuation  of  several   metaphors,  so  con 
nected  in  sense  as  to  form  a  kind  of  parable  or  fable.     Thus,  the 
people  of  Israel  are  represented  under  the  image  of  a  vine :  "Tho» 
hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt,"  etc.  Ps.  Ixxx.  8-16.     Of  this 
style  are  ^Esop's  Fables,  Bunyan's  "  Pilgrim's  Progress,"-  etc. 

5.  Vision,  or  imagery,  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker  repre- 
sents past  events,  or  the  objects  of  his  imagination,  as  actually 
present  to  his  senses;  as,  "  Caesar  leaves  Gaul,  crosses  the  Rubi- 
con, and  enters  Italy;"    "  The  combat  thickens  :  on,  ye  brave!" 

6.  An  hyperbole  is  a  figure  that  represents  things  as  greater  or 
less,  better  or  worse,  than  they  really  are.     Thus,  David  says  of 
Saul  and  Jonathan,  u  They  were  swifter  than  eagles,  they  were 
stronger  than  /ions." 

7.  Irony  is  a  figure  by  which  we  mean  quite  the  contrary  of 
what  we  say,  as,  when  Elijah  said  to  the  worshippers  of  Baal, 
u  Cry  aloud,  for  he  is  a  god,"  etc. 

8.  A  metonymy  is  a  figure  by  which  we  put  the  cause  for  the 
effect   or  the  effect  for  the  cause;   as,  when  we  say,  "  He  reads 
Milton;"  we  mean  Milton's  works.     u  Gray  hairs  should  be  re- 
spected;" that  is,  old  age. 

9.  Synecdoche  is  the  putting  of  a  part  for  the  whole,  or  the 
whole  for  a  part,  a  definite  number  for  an  indefinite,  etc. ;  as.  the 


166  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  §  92 

waves  for  the  sea,  the  head  for  the  person*  and  ten  thousand  for 
any  great  number.     This  figure  is  nearly  allied  to  metonymy 

10.  Antithesis ,   or  contrast ,  is  a  figure  by  which  different  or 
contrary  objects  are  contrasted,  to  make  them  show  one  another  to 
advantage.     Thus,  Solomon  contrasts  the  timidity  of  the  wicked 
with  the  courage  of  the  righteous,  when  he  says,    "  The  wicked 
flee  when  no  man  pursueth,  but  the  righteous  are  bold  as  a  lion." 

11.  Climax,  or  amplification,  is  the  heightening  of  all  the  cir- 
cumstances of  an  object  or  action  which  we  wish  to  place  in  a 
strong  lig«ht-,  as,  "Who  shall  separate  us  from  the  love  of  Christ? 
Shall  tribulation,  or  distress,  or  persecution,  or  famine,    or   na- 
kedness, or  peril,  or  sword  ?  Nay,"  etc.   See  also  Rom.  viii.  38,  39. 

12.  Exclamation  is  a  figure  that  is  used  to  express  some  strong 
emotion  of  the  mind-,  as,   "  Oh!  the   depth  of  the  riches  both  of 
the  wisdom  and  the  knowledge  of  God!" 

13.  Interrogation  is  a  figure  by  which  we  express  the  emotion 
of  our  mind,  and  enliven  our  discourse,  by  proposing  questions , 
thus,  "  Hath  the  Lord  said  it  ?    and  shall  he  not  do  iff    Hath  he 
spoken  it  ?  and  shall  he  not  make  it  good  ?  " 

14.  Paralepsis,  or  omission,  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker 
pretends   to   conceal  what   he  is  really  declaring  and  strongly 
enforcing-,  as,  u  Horatius  was  once  a  very  promising  young  gen- 
tleman, but  in  process  of  time  he  became  so  addicted  to  gaming, 
not  to  mention  his  drunkenness  and  debauchery,  that  he  soon  ex- 
hausted his  estate,  and  ruined  his  constitution. 

15.  Apostrophe  is  a  turning  off  from  the  subject,  to  address  some 
other  person  or  thing*,  as,  "Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory y 
O  Death,  where  is  thy  sting  ?  " 

POETIC  LICENSE. 

553.  Besides  the  deviations  from  the  usual  form  and  construc- 
tion of  words,  noted  under  the  figures  of  Etymology  and  Syntax, 
there  are  still  others,  which  can   not   be   classed  under  proper 
heads,  and  which,  from  being  used  mostly  in  poetic  composition, 
are  commonly  called  poetic  licenses.     These  are  such  as  the  fol- 
lowing— 

554.  1.  In  poetry,  words,  idioms,  and  phrases,  are 
often  used,  which  would  be  inadmissible  in  prose ;  as, 

rt  A  man  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear, 
And  passing  rich  with  forty  pounds  a  year.* 


$  92.  SYNTAX.  167 

"  By  fountain  clear,  or  spangled  starlight  sheen." 
44  Shall  I  receive  by  gift,  what  of  my  own, 

When  and  where  likes  me  best,  I  can  command1?" 
44 Thy  voice  we  hear,  and  thy  behests  obey." 
44  The  whiles,  the  vaulted  shrine  around. 

Seraphic  wires  were  heard  to  sound." 
44  On  the  first  friendly  bank  he  throws  him  down.11 
"  I'll  seek  the  solitude  he  sought, 

And  stretch  me  where  he  lay." 
4'  Not  Hector's  self  should  want  an  equal  ibe." 

2.  More  violent  and  peculiar  ellipses  are  allowable 
In  poetry  than  in  prose ;  as, 

41  Suffice^  to-night,  these  orders  to  obey." 
44  Time  is  our  tedious  song  should  here  have  ending.** 
C4For  is  there  aught  in  sleep  can  charm  the  wise?" 
*4'Tt>  Fancy,  in  her  fiery  car, 

Transports  me  to  the  thickest  war." 
44  Who  never  fasts,  no  banquet  e'er  enjoys." 
44  Bliss  is  the  same  in  subject  as  in  king, 
.  In  who  obtain  defence,  or  who  defend." 

3.  Adjectives  in  poetry  are  often  elegantly  construct- 
ed with  nouns  which  they  do  not  strictly  qualify ;  as, 

44  The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way.1' 

44  The  tenants  of  the  warbling  shade." 

14  And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds." 

4.  The  rules  of  grammar  are  often  violated  by  the 
poets.     A  noun  and  its  pronoun  are  often  used  in  refer- 
ence to  the  same  verb ;  as, 

41  It  ceased,  the  melancholy  sound." 

44  My  banks  they  are  furnished  with  bees." 

5.  An  adverb  is  often  admitted  between  the  verb 
and  t o,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive ;  as, 

41  To  sit  on  rocks,  to  muse  o'er  flood  and  fell  j 
To  slowly  trace  the  forest's  shady  scenes . " 


168  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  §  92. 

6.  A  common  poetic  license  consists  in  employing 
or  and  nor  instead  of  either  and  neither;  as, 

«  And  first 

Or  on  the  listed  plain,  or  stormy  sea." 
"  Nor  grief  nor  fear  shall  break  my  rest." 

7.  Intransitive  verbs  are  often  made  transitive,  and 
adjectives  used  like  abstract  nouns;  as, 

"  The  lightnings  flash  a  larger  curve." 

"  Still  in  harmonious  intercourse  they  lived 

The  rural  day,  and  talked  the  flowing  heart." 
4t  Meanwhile,  whatever  of  beautiful  or  new, 

By  chance,  or  search,  was  offered  to  his  view, 

He  scanned  with  curious  eye." 

8.  Greek,  Latin,  and  other  foreign  idioms,  are  al- 
lowable in  poetry,  though  inadmissible  in  prose ;  as, 

41  He  knew  to  sing,  and  build  the  lofty  rhyme." 
"  Give  me  to  seize  rich  Nestor's  shield  of  gold." 
14  There  are,  who,  deaf  to  mad  ambition's  call, 

Would  shrink  to  hear  the  obstreperous  trump  of  farm." 
44  Yet  to  their  general's  voice  they  all  obeyed." 

"  Never  since  created  man 

Met  ni'.b  embodied  force." 


PART  FOURTH. 


PROSODY. 

555.  PROSODY  treats  of  Elocution  and  Versifi- 
cation > 

§  93.    ELOCUTION. 

556.  ELOCUTION  is  correct  pronunciation,  or  the 
proper  management  of  the  voice  in  reading  or 
speaking. 

557.  In  order  to  read  and  speak  with  grace  and  ef- 
fect, attention  must  be  paid  to  the  proper  pitch  of  the 
voice,  the  accent  and  quantity  of  the  syllables,  and  to 
emphasis,  pauses,  and  tones. 

558. — 1.  In  the  PITCH  and  management  of  the  voice,  it  should 
be  neither  too  high  nor  too  low-,  it  should  be  distinct  and  clear •, 
the  utterance  neither  too  quick  nor  too  slow,  and  neither  too  va- 
ried nor  too  monotonous. 

559. — 2.  ACCENT  is  the  laying  of  a  particular  stress  of  voice 
on  a  certain  syllable  in  a  word,  as  the  syllable  vir-  in  vir'tue, 
vir'tuous. 

560. — 3.  The  QUANTITY  of  a  syllable  is  the  relative  time  which 
is  required  to  pronounce  it.  A  long  syllable,  in  quantity,  is  equal 
to  two  short  ones.  Thus,  pine,  tube,  note,  require  to  be  sounded 
as  long  again  as  pin,  tub,  not.  In  English  versification,  an  ac- 
cented syllable  is  long,  an  unaccented  one  is  short. 

561 . — 4.  EMPHASIS  means  that  greater  stress  of  the  voice  which 
we  lay  on  some  particular  word  or  words,  in  order  to  mark  their 
superior  importance  in  the  sentence,  and  thereby  the  better  to  con- 
vey the  idea  intended  by  the  writer  or  speaker. 

562. — 5.  PAUSES,  or  rests,  are  cessations  of  the  voice,  in  order 
to  enable  the  reader  or  speaker  to  take  breath  •,  and  to  give  the 
hearer  a  distinct  perception  of  the  meaning,  not  only  of  each  sen- 
tence, but  of  the  whole  discourse. 
15 


170  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  94. 

563. — 6.  TONES  consist  in  the  modulation  of  the  voice,  and  the 
notes,  or  variations  of  sound,  which  we  employ  in  speaking,  to 
express  the  different  sentiments,  emotions,  or  feelings,  intended. 

#**AfuJl  consideration  of  these  topics,  in  a  work  of  this  kind,  would  be  asim. 
practicable  as  it  would  be  out  of  place,  since  it  would  require  a  volume  for  that 
purpose.  They  are  fully  treated  of  and  exemplified  in  works  on  elocution ;  a  sub. 
ject  which  is,  or  should  be,  token  up  as  a  separate  branch  of  study. 

§  94.    VERSIFICATION. 

564.  VERSIFICATION  is  the  art  of  arranging  words 
into  poetical  lines,  or  verses. 

565.  A  Verse,  or  Poetical  Line,  consists  of  a  certain 
number  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables,  arranged 
according  to  fixed  rules. 

566.  A  Couplet,  or  Distich,  consists  of  two  lines  or 
verses  taken  together,  whether  rhyming  with  each  other 
or  not.     A  Triplet  consists  of  three  lines  rhyming  to- 
gether. 

567.  A  Stanza  is  a  combination  of  several  verses  or 
lines,  varying  in  number  according  to  the  poet's  fancy 
and  constituting  a  regular  division  of  a  poem  or  song 
This  is  often  incorrectly  called  a  verse. 

568.  Rhyme  is  the  similarity  of  sound  in  the  last 
syllables  of  two  or  more  lines  arranged  in  a  certain 
order.     Poetry,  the  verses  of  which  have  this  similarity 
is  sometimes  called  Rhyme. 

569.  Blank  Verse  is  the  name  given  to  that  species 
of  poetry  which  is  without  rhyme. 

FEET. 

570.  Feet  are  the  smaller  portions  into  which  a  line 
is  divided ;  each  of  which  consists  of  two  or  more  syl- 
lables, combined  according  to  accent. 

571.  In  English  versification,  an  accented  syllable  is  accounted 
long  ;  an  unaccented  syllable,  short.     In  the  following  examples, 
a  straight  line  (-)  over  a  syllable  shows  that  it  is  accented,  and 
a  curved  line,  or  breve  (— -),  that  it  is  unaccented. 


§  94.  PROSODY.  171 

572.  Monosyllables,  which,  when  alone,  are  regarded  as  with 
out  accent,  often  receive  it  when  placed  in  a  poetical  line,  and 
are  long  or  short,  according  as  they  are  with  or  without  the  ac- 
cent: thus, 

"  T6  rouse  him  with  the  spur  and  rein, 
With  more  than  rapture's  ray." 

In  the  ancient  languages,  each  syllable  has  a  certain  quantity, 
long  or  short,  independent  of  accent,  for  which  there  are  certain 
definite  rules.  In  this,  they  differ  widely  from  the  English. 

573.  Metre,  or  Measure,  is  the  arrangement  of  a 
certain  number  of  poetical  feet  in  a  verse  or  line. 

1.  When  a  line  has  the  proper  metre,  or  number  of  feet,  it  is 
called  Acatalectic. 

2.  When  it  is  deficient,  it  is  called  Catalectic. 

4.  When  it  has  a  redundant  syllable,  it  is  called  Hyper  cat  alectic^ 
or  Hypermeter. 

574.  A  line  consisting  of  one  foot  is  called  manome- 
ter ;  of  two,  dimeter  ;  of  three,  trimeter  ;  of  four,  te- 
trameter ;  of  five,  pentameter ;  of  six,  hexameter ;  of 
seven,  heptameter. 

575.  Scanning  is  dividing  a  verse  into  the  feet  of 
which  it  is  composed. 

576.  All  feet  in  poetry  are  reducible  to  eight  kinds ; 
four  of  two  syllables,  and  four  of  three,  as  follows  : 

I.    FEET  OF  TWO  SYLLABLES, 

1.  An  iambus  ~  — ;  as.  defend. 

2.  A  Trochee  —  ^ ;  as,  noble. 

3.  A  Spondee ;  as,  vain  man. 

4.  A  Pyrrhic  -  ~  ;  as,  on  a  (hill). 

II.    FEET  OF  THREE  SYLLABLES. 

1.  An  Anapaest       -  -  — ;  as,  intercede. 

2.  A  Dactyl  -  -  -  ;  as,  durable. 

3.  An  Amphibrach  -  —  ~ ;  as,  abundant. 

4.  A  Tribach          ~  ~  ~ ;  as,  (to)lerable. 


17*2  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  94 

577.  Of  all  these,  the  principal  are  the  Iambus,  Tro- 
chee, Anapast,  and  Dactyl.     The  other  four  feet  are 
used  chiefly  in  connection  with  these,  in  order  to  give 
Variety  to  measure. 

578.  A  Trochee  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  last 
unaccented-,  as,  noblP,  music. 

579.  An  Iambus  has  the  first  syllable  unaccented,  and  the  last 
accented-,  as,  adore,  defend. 

580.  A  Spondee  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  accented-,  as, 
vain  man. 

581.  A  Pyrrhic  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  unaccented-,  as, 
6n  a  (hill). 

582.  A  Dactyl  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  two  last 
unaccented-,  as,  vlrtuoHs. 

583.  An  Amphibrach  has  the  first  and  the  last  syllable  unac- 
cented, and  the  middle  one  accented-,  as,  contentment. 

684.  An  Anapaest  has  the  first  two  syllables  unaccented,  and  the 
last  one  accented ;  as,  Intercede. 

585.  A  Tribrach  has  all  its  syllables  unaccented-,  as,  nu  \  m£ 
rabU. 

586.  A  verse  is  usually  named  from  the  name  of  the 
foot  which  predominates  in  it ;  thus,  Iambic,  Trochaic, 
&e. 

I.  IAMBIC  VERSE. 

587.  An  Iambic  verse  consists    of  iambuses,    and 
consequently  has  the  accent  on  the  second,  fourth,  sixth, 
&c.  syllable.     It  has  different  metres,  as  follows : 

1.  Iambic  Manometer.     The  shortest  form  of  Iambic 
verse  consists  of  one  iambus ;  as, 
How  bright 
The  light! 

It  sometimes    assumes  an   additional  or   hypermeter 
syllable ;  as, 

Consent  |  ing, 
Repent  |  ing. 

We  have  no  poem  of  this  measure,  but  it^is  sometimes 
introduced  into  stanzas. 


§  94  PROSODY.  173 

2.  Iambic  Dimeter.     The  second  form  of  our  Iam- 
bic is  also  too  short  to  be  continued  through  any  num- 
ber of  lines.     It  consists  of  two  iambuses  ;  as, 

With  Thee  |  we  rise, 
With  Thee  j  we  reign, 
And  em  |  pires  gain 
Beyond  [  the  skies. 

This  form  sometimes  assumes  an  hyp* /meter  syllable  ; 
as, 

Upon  |  a  moun  |  tain, 
Beside  |  a  foun  |  tain. 

3.  Iambic  Trimeter.     The  third  form   consists  of 
three  iambuses,  and  is  continued  onlj  for  a  few  lines;  as, 

In  pla  |  ces  far  |  Or  near, 

Or  fa  |  mous  or  |  Sbscure, 

Where  whole  |  some  is  |  the  air, 

Or  where    [  the  most  impure. 

This  form  sometimes  admits  an  additional  short  sylla- 
ble ;  as, 

Our  hearts  |  no  long  |  er  Ian  |  gulsh. 

4.  Iambic  Tetrameter.   The  fourth  form  may  extend 
through  a  considerable  number  of  verses  ;  it  consists  of 
four  iambuses ;  as, 

How  sleep  |  the  brave  |  whS  sink  |  t6  rest, 
By  all  their  country's  wishes  blest ! 

This  also  admits  an  hypermeter  syllable ;  as, 
From  house  |  wife  cares  |  a  mi  |  nute  bor  |  row. 

5.  Iambic  Pentameter.    The  fifth  species,  or  Heroic 
measure,  consists  of  Jive  iambuses;  as, 

Ye  gilt  |  t'rmg  towns,  |  with  wealth  |  and  splen  |  dour  cr5wn'd* 
Ye  fields,  where  summer  spreads  profusion  round  5 
Ye  lakes,  whose  vessels  catch  the  busy  gale; 
Ye  bending  swains,  that  dress  the  flow'ry  vale. 

This  verse  without  rhyme  constitutes  the  common 

blank  verse.     Such  is  Milton's  Paradise  Lost, 

15* 


174  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  94 

The  Elegiac  Stanza  consists  of  four  lines  pentameter 
rhyming  alternately ;  as, 

The  cur  |  few  tolls  |  the  knell  |  of  part  |  Ing  day, 

The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea; 
The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 

And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 
This  measure  frequently  admits  an  additional  sylla- 
ble; as, 

Worth  makes  |  the  man,  |  the*  want  |  6f  It  |  the  fel  |  low, 
The  rest  is  nought  but  leather  or  pruneUo. 

6.  Iambic  Hexameter.     The  sixth  form  of  our  Iam- 
bic is  commonly  called  the  Alexandrine  measure ;  it 
consists  of  six  iambuses. 

For  thou  I  art  but  |  of  dust  :  be  hum  |  ble  and  |  be*  wise. 
The  Alexandrine  is  sometimes  introduced  into  heroic 
rhyme,  and  particularly  into  stanzas  after  the  manner 
of  Spenser,  in  Ms  "  Faery  Queen ;"  and  when  used 
sparingly,  and  with  judgment,  occasions  an  agreeable 
variety. 

To  sit  on  rocks,  to  muse  o'er  flood  and  fell, 

To  slowly  trace  the  forest's  shady  scene, 

Where  things  that  own  not  man's  dominion  dwell, 

And  mortal  foot  hath  ne'er,  or  rarely  been; 

To  climb  the  trackless  mountain  all  unseen, 

With  the  wild  flock  that  never  needs  a  fold ; 

Alone  o'er  steeps  and  foaming  falls  to  lean  j 

This  is  not  solitude;  'tis  but  to  hold 

Converse  \  with  Na  \  ture^s  charms,  \  and  view  \  her  store*  \ 
unroWd. 

This  also  admits  an  hypermeter  syllable  ;  as, 

The  shep  j  herd  him  |  pursues,  |  and  to  I  his  dog  j  doth  hoi  |  low. 

7.  Iambic  Heptameter.     The  seventh  and  last  form 
of  Iambic  verse  consists  of  seven  iambuses. 

The"  Lord  |  descend  |  ed  from  |  above,  |  and  bow'd  |  thS  h§a  | 
v6ns  high. 


$  94.  FROSODT.  175 

This  was  anciently  written  in  one  line  ;  but  it  is  now 
divided  into  two,  the  first  containing  four  feet,  and  the 
second,  three  ;  as, 

Thou  didst,  |  O  migh  |  ty  God!  |  exist  | 

Ere  time  |  began  |  its  race-, 
Before  the  ample  elements 

FilPd  up  the  void  of  space. 

This  is  what  is  called  Common  Metre.  The  Short 
Metre  Stanza  consists  of  four  lines,  of  which  the  first, 
second  and  fourth  contain  three  feet,  and  the  third, 
four.  Long  Metre  has  four  feet  in  each  line,  as  above 
(No,  4). 

II.  TROCHAIC  VERSE. 

588.  Trochaic  verse  consists  of  trochees,  and  con- 
sequently has  the  accent  on  the  first,  third,  fifth,  &c. 
syllable. 

1.  Trochaic  Monometer.     The  shortest  form  consists 
of  one  foot ;  as, 

Cheering, 
Veering. 

It  sometimes  admits  an  additional  long  syllable  ;  as, 

Tumult  |  cease, 
Sink  to  |  peace. 

2.  Trochaic  Dimeter.     The  next  form  contains  two 
trochees ;  as, 

Wishes  |  rising, 
Thoughts  sur  |  prising, 
Pleasures  |  courting, 
Charms  trans  |  porting. 
Sometimes  this  form  admits  an  additional  syllable ;  as. 

In  the  |  days  of  |  old, 
Stories  |  plainly  |  told.    - 

3.  Trochaic  Trimeter.     The  third  species  contains 
three  trochees ;  as, 

When  our  |  hearts  ftre  |  mourning, 


176  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  §  94 

This  form  frequently  has  an  additional  syllable  ;  as, 

Vital  |  spark  of  |  heav'nly  |  flame  t 
Quit,  oh  |  quit  this  |  mortal  \frame! 

4.  Trochaic  Tetrameter.     The  fourth  form  consistf 
of  four  trochees ;  as, 

Round  us  |  roars  the"  |  tempest  |  louder. 

This  form  sometimes  assumes  an  additional  syllable;  as 

Where  the  |  wood  is  |  waving  |  green  and  |  high. 

5.  Trochaic  Pentameter.     The  fifth  species  is  not 
very  common ;  it  is  composed  of  Jive  trochees  ;  as, 

All  that  |  walk  dn  |  foot  or  |  ride  In  |  chariots, 
All  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets.  . 

6.  Trochaic  Hexameter.     The  sixth  and  last  form 
consists  of  six  trochees ;  as, 

On  a  |  mountain,  |  stretch'd  be  |  neath  a  |  hoary  |  willow, 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  viewed  the  rolling  billow. 

Both  the  fifth  and  sixth  species  sometimes  take  an 
additional  syllable,  in  which  case  the  line  is  usually 
divided  into  two  ;  thus, 

5.  Hail  t6  |  thee,  blithe  |  spirit!  |  bird  thou  |  never  |  wirt, 

Divided  thus, 

Hail  to  |  thee,  blithe  |  spirit! 
Bird  thou  |  never  |  wert. 
<J.  Night  and  |  morning  |  were  at  |  meeting,  |  over  |  Wat^r  |  loo 

Divided  thus, 

Night  and  |  morning  |  were  at  |  meeting, 
Over  |  Water  |  loo. 

III.  ANAP^STIC  VERSE. 

589.  Anapastic  verse  consists  chiefly  of  anapaests 
and,  when  pure,  has  the  accent  on  every  third  syllable. 

1.  Anap&stic  Manometer.  This  measure  consists  of 
one  foot;  as, 

In  a  sweet 
RSsdnance. 


§  94.  PROSODY.  177 

2.  Anap&stic  Dimeter.     The  second  form  of  Ana- 
paestic verse  consists  of  two  anapaests  ;  as, 

But  his  cou  |  rage,  'gan  fail, 
For  no  arts  |  could  avail. 

Sometimes  this  form  assumes  an  additional  short 
syllable;  as, 

Then  his  cou  |  rage,  gan  fail  |  him 
For  no  arts  could  avail  him. 

3.  Anapastic  Trimeter.     The  third  species,  much 
used  both  in  solemn  and  cheerful  subjects,  consists  of 
three  anapaests,  and  seldom  takes  an  additional  syllable. 

0  ye  woods,  |  spread  your  branch  |  es  apace, 
To  your  deep  |  est  recess  |  es  I  fly, 

1  would  hide  with  the  beasts  of  the  chase, 
I  would  vanish,  from  every  eye. 

4.  Anapastic  Tetrameter.     The  fourth  consists  of 
four  anapaests  ;  as, 

May  I  go  |  vern  my  pas  |  sions  with  ab  |  solute  sway, 
And  grow  wiser  and  better  as  life  wears  away. 
This  form  sometimes  contains  an  additional  syllable;  as. 
On  the  warm  |  cheek  of  youth,  |  smiles  and  ro  |  ses  are 
blend  |  Ing. 

IV.  DACTYLIC  VERSE. 

590.  Dactylic  verse  consists  chiefly  of  dactyls,  and 
has  the  following  varieties  : 

1.  Dactylic  Monometer.  This  consists  of  one  foot,  as, 

Fearfully, 
Tearfully. 
This  measure  takes  an  additional  long  syllable,  as, 

Over  a  |  m£ad, 
Pricking  his  |  steed. 

2.  Dactylic  Dimeter.  This  consists  of  two  dactyls;  as, 

Free  from  sa  |  tlety, 
Care  and  an  |  xiety, 
Charms  in  variety 
Fall  to  his  |  share. 


178  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  94. 

The  same  with  an  additional  long  syllable ;  as, 

Cover'd  with  |  snow  was  the  |  vale  ; 
Sad  was  the  |  shriek  of  the  ]  gale. 

3.  Dactylic  Trimeter.     This  form  consists  of  three 
dactyls ;  as, 

Wearing  a  |  way  In  his  |  youthfulness, 
Loveliness,  |  beauty  and  |  truthfulness. 
This  also  may  have  an  additional  long  syllable  ;  as, 

Weary  and  |  worn,  she  has  |  waited  fftr  |  years, 
Keeping  her  |  grief  ever  |  green  with  her  |  tears. 
Dactylic  Tetrameter,  Pentameter,  and  Hexameter, 
are  seldom  used ;  when  used,  they  are  constructed  by 
making  the  line  consist  of  four,  Jive,  or  six  dactylic  feet. 
In  Dactylic  verse  the  last  foot  is  not  always  a  dactyl, 
a  trochee  being  often  used  instead  of  it,  and  sometimes 
a  single  long  syllable,  making  a  hypermeter  line  in  dac- 
tylic stanzas,  as  in  the  following  : 
Faster  come,  |  faster  come, 

Faster  and  j  faster-, 
Chief  vassal,  |  page  and  groom, 

Tenant  and  |  master. 
Peace  to  the  |  Isle  of  the  |  ocean, 
Peace  to  thy  |  breezes  and  |  billows. 
Hail  to  the  |  Chief  who  In  |  triumph  ad  |  Vance's ! 
Honored  and  |  bless'd  be  the  |  ever-green  |  pine! 
Long  may  the  |  tree  In  his  |  banner  that  |  glances, 
Flourish  the  |  shelter  and  |  grace  of  our  |  line. 

591.  The  following  is  an   example  of  dactyls  and 
spondees  alternately : 

Green  in  the  |  wildwood,  |  proudly  the  |  tall  tree  |  looks  on  th§ 
|  brown  plain. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  pure  dactylic  hexa- 
meter : 

OvSr  th6  |  vallSy,  with  |  speed  like  the  j  wind,  fill  thS  I 
steeds  wSro  a  |  galloping. 


§  94  PROSODY  179 

MIXED  VERSES. 

592.  The  preceding  are  the  different  kinds  'of  the 
principal  feet,  in  their  simple  forms.    They  are  capable 
of  numerous  variations,  by  the  intermixture  of  those 
feet  with  one  another,  and  by  the  admission  of  the  se- 
condary feet,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  examples 

THE  PYBRHIC  MIXED  WITH  THE  IAMBIC. 

And  td  [  the"  dead  |  my  will  |  Ing  soul  |  shall  go. 

THE  SPONDEE  WITH  THE  IAMBIC. 

Forbear  |  great  man,  |  in  arms  |  renown'd,  |  fSrbear. 

THE  TROCHEE  WITH  THE  IAMBIC. 

Tyrant  |  and  slave,  |  those  names  |  of  hate  |  and  fear. 

THE  FOLLOWING  CONSISTS  OF  AN  IAMBIC  AND  TWO  ANAPJSSTS. 

My  sor  |  rows  I  then  |  might  assuage 

In  the  ways  |  of  reli  |  gion  and  truth ; 
Might  learn  |  from  the  wis  |  dom  of  age, 

And  be  cheerM  |  by  the  sal  |  lies  of  youth. 

A  pleasing  movement  is  produced  by  intermingling 
iambuses  and  anapasts,  as  in  the  following  lines : 
"  Ye  may  trace  |  my  steps  |  o'er  the  wa  |  kenlng  earth, 
By  th6  winds  |  which  tell  |  of  the  vl  |  olet.'s  birth, 
By  the  prim  |  rose  stars  |  of  the  sha  |  dowy  grass, 
By  the  green  |  leaves  o  |  pening  |  as  I  pass." 

V.  OF  BLANK  VERSE. 

593.  Our  blank  verse  maybe  reckoned  a  noble,  bold 
and  unencumbered  species  of  versification,  and  in  se- 
veral cases  it  possesses  many  advantages  over  rhyme 
It  allows  the  lines  to  run  into  one  another  with  perfect 
freedom  ;  hence  it  is  adapted  to  subjects  of  dignity  and 
force,  which  demand  more  free  and  manly  numbers 
than  can  be  obtained  in  rhyme.    Blank  verse  is  written 
in  the  heroic  measure,  consisting  of  ten  syllables.    The 
principal  poets  in  this  species  of  composition  are  Mil- 
ton,  Thomson,  Armstrong,   Akenside,   Cowper,   and 
Pollok. 


180  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  §  95 

§  95.     COMPOSITION. 

594 .  COMPOSITION  is  the  art  of  expressing  our  senti- 
ments in  spoken  or  written  language.     It  is  of  two 
kinds,  Prose  and  Poetry. 

595.  Prose  compositions  are  those  in  which  the  thoughts  are 
expressed  in  the  natural  order,  in  common  and  ordinary  language. 

596.  Poetic  compositions  are  those  in  which  the  thoughts  and 
sentiments  are  expressed  in  measured  verse,  in  loftier  and  more 
inverted  style,  by  words  and  figures  selected  and  arranged  so  as 
to  please  the  ear,  and  captivate  the  fancy. 

597.  In  both  of  these,  speech  or  discourse  is  either  direct  or 
indirect. 

598.  Direct  discourse  is  that  in  which  a  writer  or  speaker  de- 
livers his  own  sentiments. 

599.  Indirect  or  oblique  discourse  is  that  in  which  a  person  re- 
lates, in  his  own  language,  what  another  speaker  or  writer  said. 

BOO.  In  theirs?,  when  the  speaker  refers  to  himself,  he  uses 
the  first  person /or  we.  When  he  refers  to  the  person  or  per- 
sons addressed,  he  uses  the  second  person  thou,  you,  etc. 

601.  In  the  second  or  indirect  discourse,  whether  the  speaker 
is  reported  as  referring  to  himself,  or  to  those  whom  headdresses, 
the  third  person  is  used  in  either  case-,  as,  he,  she,  they,  etc.    An 
example  will  best  illustrate  the  distinction ;  thus : 

DIRECT   DISCOURSE. 

602.  Then  Paul  stood  in  the  midst  of  Mars-hill  and  said:  u  Ye 
men  of  Athens,  I  perceive  that  in  all  things  ye  are  too  supersti- 
tious-, for  as  I  passed  by  and  beheld  your  devotions,  I  found  an 
altar  with  this  inscription-.  c  To  THE  UNKNOWN  GOD.'     Whom, 
therefore,  ye  ignorantly  worship,  him  declare  I  unto  you." 

INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

603.  The  same,  reported  in  indirect  or  oblique  discourse,  would 
run  thus-. 

Then  Paul,  standing  on  Mars-hill,  told  the  men  of  Athens  he 
perceived  that  :  a  all  things  they  were  too  superstitious  -,  for  as 
he  passed  by  and  beheld  their  devotions,  he  found  an  altar  with 
this  inscription:  "  To  THE  UNKNOWN  GOD."  Whom,  therefore, 
they  ignorantly  worshipped,  him  declared  he  unto  them. 

604.  When  the  reporter,  the  speaker  reported,  and  the  person 
or  persons  addressed,  are  different  in  gender  or  number,   there  is 
no  danger  of  ambiguity.     But  when  in  these  respects  they  are 
the   same,  ambiguity  is  unavoidable,    from  the   same   pronoun 
being  used  in  the  progress  of  discourse,  to  designate   different 
persons.     Hence,  to  prevent  mistakes,  it  is  often   necessary  to 
insert  the  name  or  designation  of  the  person  meant  by  the  pro- 
noun     An  example  will  best  illustrate  this  also 


§  9.^.  COMPOSITION.  181 

"  Then  the  son  went  to  his  father  and  said  to  him,  [direct]  l  I 
have  sinned  against  Heaven  and  in  thy  sight/  " 

u  Then  the  son  went  to  his  father  and  said  to  him,  [indirect] 
that  he  [the  son]  had  sinned  against  Heaven  and  in  his  [his  fa- 
ther's] sight." 

It  will  at  once  be  perceived,  that,  without  the  words  enclosed 
in  brackets,  for  explanation,  it  would  be  impossible  to  tell  whe- 
ther by  the  word  he,  the  father  or  the  son  was  intended-,  so  also 
with  respect  to  the  word  'his.  Hence,  when  by  the  indirect  dis- 
course, ambiguity  is  unavoidable,  it  is  generally  better  to  have 
recourse  to  the  direct  form,  and  quote  the  writer's  or  speaker's 
own  words,  as  in  (G02). 

605.  The  principal  kinds  of  prose  compositions  are, 
narrative,  letters,  memoirs,  history,  biography,  essays, 
philosophy,  sermons,  novels,  speeches,  and  orations. 

606.  The  principal  kinds  of  poetical   compositions 
are,  the  epigram,  the  epitaph,  the  sonnet,  pastoral  poe- 
try, didactic  poetry,  satires,  descriptive  poetry,  elegy, 
lyric  poetry,  dramatic  poetry,  and  epic  poetry  [§  91]. 

THE  USE  OF  GRAMMAR  IN  COMPOSITION. 

607.  To  speak  and  write  with  propriety,  in  every  species  of 
composition,    is  an  attainment  of  no  small  importance-,  and  to 
lead  to  this  attainment  is  the  business  of  grammar.    The  grammar 
of  a  language  is  just  a  compilation  of  rules  and  directions,  agreea- 
bly to  which  that  language  is  spoken  or  written.     These  rules, 
however,  are  not  the  invention  of  the  grammarian,  nor  dependent 
on  his  authority  for  their  validity.     As  it  is  the  business  of  the 
philosopher,  not  to  make  a  law  of  Nature,  nor  to  dictate  how  her 
operations  should  be  performed,  but,  by  close  observation,  to  as- 
certain what  those  laws  are,  and  to  state  them  for  the  information 
of  others-,  so  the  business  of  the  grammarian  is,  not  to  make  the 
laws  of  language,  for  language  is  before  grammar,  but  to  observe 
and  note  those  principles,  and  forms,  and  modes  of  speech,  by 
which  men  are  accustomed  to  express  their  sentiments,  and  to 
arrange  the  results  of  his  observation  into  a  system  of  rules  for 
the  guidance  and  assistance  of  others.     It  is  obvious,  then,  that 
the  ultimate  principle  or  test  to  which  the  rules  laid  down  by  the 
grammarian  must  conform,  is  THE  BEST  USAGE. 

608.  Hence,  when  the  inquiry  is  whether  a  particular  word  or 
form  of  speech  is  right,  is  good  English,  the  only  question  to  be 
decided  is,  "  Is  it  according  to  the  best  usage  V"  On  this  subject, 
however,  it  has  been  made  a  question,  "What  is  the  best  usage?" 
The  following  sentiments,  abridged  from  Dr.  Crombie's  work  on 
English  Etymology  and  Syntax,  seem  to  be  just   and  compre- 
hensive of  this  whole  subject. 

16 


182  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR,  $  95 

THE  LAW  OF  LANGUAGE. 

609.  First.  The  USAGE  which  gives  law  to  language,  in  order 
to  establish  its  authority,  or  to  entitle  its  suffrage  to  our  assent, 
must  be  reputable  ;  by  which  is  meant,  not  the  usage  of  the  court, 
nor  great  men,  nor  merely  scientific  men,  but  of  those  whose 
works  are  esteemed  by  the  public^  and  who  may  therefore  be  de- 
nominated reputable  authors. 

610.  Secondly.  This  usage  must  be  national.     It  must  not  be 
confined  to  this  or  that  province  or  district.     "Those,"  to  use 
CampbelPs  apposite  similitude,  "who  deviate  from  the  beaten 
road  may  be  incomparably  more  numerous  than  those  who  travel 
in  it  •,  yet,  into  whatever  number  of  by-paths  the  former  may  be 
divided,  there  may  not  be  found  in  any  one  of  these  tracks  so  many 
as  travel  in  the  king's  highway." 

611.  Thirdly.  This  usage  must  be  present.    It  is  difficult  to  fix 
with  any  precision  what  usage  may  in  all  cases  be  deemed  pre- 
sent.    It  is  perhaps  in  this  respect  different  with  different  com- 
positions.    In  general,  words  and  forms  of  speech,  which  have 
been  long  disused,  should  not  be  employed.     And  so,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  usage  of  the  present  day  is  not  implicitly  to  be  adop- 
ted.    Mankind  are  fond  of  novelty,  and  there  is  a -fashion  in  lan- 
guage as  there  is  in  dress.     Whim,  vanity,  and  affectation,  de- 
light in  creating  new  words,  and  using  new  forms  of  phraseology. 
Now,  to  adopt  every  new-fangled  upstart  at  its  birth,  would  ar- 
gue, not  taste,  nor  judgment,  but  childish  fondness  for  singularity 
and  novelty.     But  should  any  of  these  maintain  its  ground,  and 
receive  the  sanction  of  reputable  usage,  it  must  in  that  case  be 
received, 

612.  The  usage,  then,  which  gives  law  to  language,  and  which 
is  generally  denominated  good  usage,  must  be  reputable,  national, 
and  present.     It   happens,  however,  that  "  good  usage'*  is  not 
always  uniform  in  her  decisions,  and  that  in  unquestionable  au- 
thorities are  found  far  different  modes  of  expression.     In  such 
cases,    the  following  CANONS,  proposed    by  Dr.  Campbell,   will 
be  of  service  in  enabling  to  decide  to  which  phraseology  the  pre- 
ference ought  to  be  given.     They  are  given  nearly  in  the  wrordg 
of  the  author-. 

613.  CANON  1.  Wlien  the  use  is  divided  as  to  any 
particular  words  or  phrases,  and  when  one  of  the  ex- 
pressions is  susceptible  of  a  different  meaning,  while 
the  other  adraits  of  only  one  signification,  the  expression 
which  is  strictly  univocal  should  be  preferred. 

614.  CANON  2.  In  doubtful  cases,  analogy  should 
be  regarded. 

615.  CANON  3,    When  expressions  are  in  other  re- 


$  95.  COMPOSITION.  !83 

spects  equal,  that  should  be  preferred  which  is  most 
agreeable  to  the  ear. 

616.  CANON  4.  When  none  of  the  preceding  rules 
takes  place,  regard  should  be  had  to  simplicity. 

617.  But  though  no  expression  or  mode  of  speech  can  be  jus- 
tified which  is  not  sanctioned  by  usage,  yet  the  converse  does  riot 
follow,  that  every  phraseology  sanctioned  by  usage  should  be  re- 
tained.    In  many  such  cases,  custom  may  properly  be  checked 
by  criticism."  whose  province  it  is,  not  only  to  remonstrate  against 
the  introduction  of  any  word  or  phraseology  which  may  be  either 
unnecessary  or  contrary  to  analogy,  but  also  to  exclude  whateve* 
is  reprehensible,  though  in  general  use.     It  is  by  this,  her  prero* 
gative,  that  languages  are  gradually  refined  and  improved.     In 
exercising  this   authority,  she  can  not   pretend  to  degrade,  in- 
stantly, any  phraseology  which  she  may  deem  objectionable  5  but 
she   may,  by  repeated    remonstrances,    gradually  effect   its  dis- 
mission.    Her  decisions  in  such  cases  may  be  properly  regulated 
oy  the  following  rules,  laid  down  by  the  same  author: 

618.  RULE  1.     All  words  and  phrases,  particularly 
harsh  and  not  absolutely  necessary,  should  be  dismissed. 

619.  RULE  2.     When  the  etymology  plainly  points 
to  a  different  signification  from  what  the  word  bears, 
propriety  and  simplicity  require  its  dismission. 

620.  RULE  3.     When  words  become  obsolete,  or  are 
never  used  but  in  particular  phrases,  they  should  be 
repudiated,  as  they  give  the  style  an  air  of  vulgarity 
and  cant,  when  this  general  disuse  renders  them  obscure. 

621.  RULE  4.     All  words  and  phrases  which,  analy- 
zed grammatically,  include  a  solecism,  should  be. dis- 
missed. *          • 

622.  RULE  5.     All  expressions  which,  according  to 
the  established  rules  of  language,  either  have  no  mean- 
ing, or  involve  a  contradiction,  or,  according  to  the  fair 
construction  of  the  words,  convey  a  meaning  different 
from  the  intention  of  the  speaker,  should  be  dismissed. 

623.  In  order  to  write  any  language  with  grammatical  purity 
three  things  are  required-. 

1.  That  the  words  be  all  of  that  language.     The  violation  of 
this  rule  is  called  a  barbarism. 


184  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  96 

2.  That  they  be  construed  and  arranged  according  to  the  rules 
of  srntax  in  that  language.     A  violation  of  this  rule  is  called  a 
solttism. 

3.  That  they  be  employed   in  that  sense  which  usage  has  an- 
nexed to  them.     A  violation  of  this  rule  is  called  impropriety. 

624.  A  barbarism  is   an  offence  against   lexicography.     The 
solecism  is  an  offence  against  the  rules  of  syntax  •,  and  the  impro- 
priety is  an  offence  against  lexicography,  by  mistaking  the  mean- 
ing of  words  and  phrases. 

$  96.  HINTS  FOR  CORRECT  AND  ELEGANT  WRITING 

625.  Correct  and  elegant  writing  depends  partly  upon 
the  choice  of  words,  and  partly  upon   the  form  and 
structure  of  sentences. 

I.  In  so  far  as  respects  single  words,  the  chief  things 
to  he  observed,  are  Purity,  Propriety,  and  Precision. 

PURITY. 

626.  Purity  consists  in  the  rejection  of  such  words  and  phrases 
as  are  not  strictly  English,  nor  in  accordance  with  the  practice 
of  good  writers  and  speakers. 

1.  Avoid  fo.eign  words  and  modes  of  expression  •,  as,  Fraicheur, 
politesse  ;  he  repents  him  of  his  folly. 

2.  Avoid  obsolete  and  unauthorized  words;  as,  Albeit,  afore- 
time, inspectator.  judgmatical. 

EXERCISES. 

The  person  is  without  encumberment.  In  the  country,  we 
associate  with  none  but  the  bettermost  sort  of  people.  Snails 
exclude  their  horns,  aud  therewith  explorate  their  way.  Me- 
thinks  till  now  I  never  heard  a  sound  more  dreary.  We  walked 
adown  the  river  side.  Peradveiiture  he  may  call  to-morrow.  He 
is  a  very  impopular  speaker.  I  like  his  great  candidness  of 
temper. 

PROPRIETY. 

627.  Propriety  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words  as  are  best 
tdapted  to  express  our  meaning. 

1.  Avoid  low  and  provincial  expressions-,  as,  to  get  into  a  scrape. 

2.  In  writing  prose,  reject  words  that  are  merely  poetical  j  as, 
this  morn  ;  the  celestial  orbs. 

3.  Avoid  technical  terms,  unless  you  write  to  those  who  per- 
fectly understand  them. 

4.  Do  not  use  the  same  word  too  frequently,  or  in  different 
senses-,  as,  the  king  communicated  his  intention  to  the  minister, 
who  disclosed  it  to  the  secretary,  who  made  it  known  to  the  pub- 
lic-, His  own  reason  might  have  suggested  better  reasons. 

5.  Supply  words  that  are  wanting,   and  necessary  to  complete 
th«  sense-,  thus,  instead  of  "  this  action  increased  his  former  ser- 


§  96.  COMPOSITION.  185 

vices,"  say,  this  action  increased  the  merit  of  his  former  services. 

6.  Avoid  equivocal  or  ambiguous  expressions-,  as,  his  memory 
shall  be  lost  on  the  earth. 

7.  Avoid  unintelligible  and  inconsistent  expressions •,  as,  I  have 
an  opaque  idea  of  what  you  mean. 

EXERCISES. 

The  composure  of  this  psalm  is  attributed  to  David.  They  will 
meet  at  eve.  Regard  should  be  paid  to  the  pupils'  intended  avo- 
cations. The  observation  of  the  Sabbath  is  incumbent  upon  every 
Christian.  The  negligence  of  this  leaves  us  exposed  to  uncom- 
mon levity.  He  put  an  end  to  his  own  existence.  I  propose  to 
give  a  general  view  of  the  subject.  I  wonder  if  he  will  COTIC. 
He  feels  none  of  the  sorrows  that  usually  arrive  at  man.  War 
should  be  so  managed  as  to  remember  that  its  only  end  is  peace. 
When  Johnson  was  ill,  he  composed  a  prayer  to  deprecate  God's 
mercy.  There  are  both  more  and  more  important  truths.  He 
lives  in  a  lone  cottage.  The  Latin  tongue  in  its  purity  was  ne- 
ver in  Britain.  Imprudent  associations  disqualify  us  for  the  in- 
struction or  reproof  of  others. 

PRECISION. 

628.  Precision  rejects  the  superfluous  words. 

1.  Avoid  tautology-,  as,  u  his  faithfulness  and  fidelity  were  un 
equalled." 

2.  Observe  the  exact  meaning  of  words  accounted  synonymous, 
thus,  instead  of,  "  though  his  actions  and  intentions  were  good,  he 
lost  his  character;"  say  u  he  lost  his  reputation." 

EXERCISES. 

I  took  some  wine  and  some  water,  and  mixed  them  both  to- 
gether. He  wandered  throughout  the  whole  city.  They  abhorred 
and  detested  being  in  debt.  This  man,  on  all  occasions,  treated 
those  around  him  with  great  haughtiness  and  disdain.  His  wealth 
and  riches  being  collected  and  accumulated  in  meanness,  were 
squandered  in  riot  and  extravagance.  Such  conduct  showed  a 
marked  and  obvious  intention  to  deceive  and  abuse  us.  He  had 
proceeded  but  a  short  way  on  his  journey,  when  he  returned  home 
again. 

II.  With  respect  to  sentences,  Clearness,  Unity, 
Strength,  and  a  proper  application  of  the  Figures  of 
Speech,  are  necessary. 

CLEARNESS. 

629.  Clearness  demands  a  proper  arrangement  of  words. 

1.  Adverbs,  relative  pronouns,  and  explanatory  phrases,  must 
be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  words  which  they  affect,  and 
in  such  a  situation  as  the  sense  requires. 

2.  In  prose,  a  poetic  collocation  must  be  avoided. 

3.  Pronouns  must  be  so  used  as  clearly  to  indicate  the  word 
for  which  they  stand.  ,  «* 


186  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  §  96. 

EXERCISES. 

By  the  articles  subsisting^between  us,  on  the  day  of  marriage, 
you  agreed  to  pay  down  the  sum  of  eight  thousand  pounds.  Not 
to  exasperate  him,  I  only  spoke  a  very  few  words.  It  has  not  a 
word,  says  Pope,  but  what  the  author  religiously  thinks  in  it.  It 
is  true  what  he  says,  but  it  is  not  applicable  to  the  point.  Had 
he  died  before,  would  not  then  this  art  have  been  wholly  unknown? 
Most  nations,  not  even  excepting  the  Jews,  were  prone  to  idolatry. 
He  will  soon  weary  the  company,  who  is  himself  wearied. 

UNITY. 

630.  Unity  retains  one  predominant  object  through  a  sentence, 
or  a  series  of  clauses. 

1.  Separate  into  distinct  sentences,  such  clauses  as  have  no  im- 
mediate connection. 

2.  The  principal  words  must,  throughout  a  sentence,  be  the 
most  prominent  5  and  the  leading  nominative  should,  if  possible, 
be  the  subject  of  every  clause. 

3.  Avoid  the  introduction  of  parentheses,  except  when  a  lively 
remark  may  be  thrown  in,  without  too  long  suspending  the  sense 
of  what  goes  before . 

EXERCISES. 

Desires  or  pleasure  usher  in  temptation,  and  the  growth  of  dis- 
orderly passions  is  forwarded.  The  notions  of  Lord  Sunderland 
were  always  good,  but  he  was  a  man  of  great  expense.  A  short 
time  after  this  injury,  he  came  to  himself-,  and  the  next  day  they 
put  him  on  board  a  ship,  which  conveyed  him  first  to  Corinth,  and 
thence  to  the  island  of  ^Egina.  He  who  performs  every  employ- 
ment in  its  due  place  and  season,  suffers  no  part  of  time  to  escape 
without  profit-,  and  thus  his  days  become  multiplied,  and  much 
of  life  is  enjoyed  in  little  space.  Never  delay  till  to-morrow,  (for 
to-morrow  is  not  yours  -,  and  though  you  should  live  to  enjoy  it, 
you  must  not  overload  it  with  a  burden  not  its  own,)  what  reason 
and  conscience  tell  you  ought  to  be  performed  to-day. 

STRENGTH. 

631.  Strength  gives  to  every  word  and  every  member  its  due 
importance. 

1.  Avoid  tautology,  and  reject  all  superfluous  words  and  mem- 
bers.   In  the  following  sentence,  the  word  printed  in  italics  should 
be  omitted;  ''''being  conscious  of  his  own  integrity,  he  disdained 
submission." 

2.  Place  the  most  important  words  in  the  situation  in  which 
they  will  make  the  strongest  impression. 

3.  A  weaker  assertion  should  not  follow  a  stronger;  and  when 
the  sentence  consists  of  two  members,  the  longer  should  be  the 
concluding  one. 

4.  When  two  things  are  compared  or  contrasted  with  each  other, 
where  either  resemblance  or  opposition  is  to  be  expressed,  some 
resemblance  in  the  language  and  construction  should  be  preserved. 


^  96.  COMPOSITION.  187 

5.  A  sentence  should  not  be  concluded  with  a  preposition,  01 
any  inconsiderable  word  or  phrase,  unless  it  be  emphatic. 

EXERCISES. 

It  is  six  months  ago,  since  I  paid  a  visit  to  my  relations .  Sus- 
pend your  censure  so  long,  till  your  judgment  be  wisely  formed. 
The  reason  why  he  spoke  as  he  did,  he  never  explained.  If  I 
mistake  not,  I  think  he  has  made  great  improvement  since  I  last 
saw  him.  Those  two  gentleman  appear  both  to  be  foreigners.  I 
fear  this  is  the  last  time  that  we  shall  ever  meet.  How  m-any  are 
there,  by  whom  these  tidings  of  good  news  were  never  heard. 
This  measure  may  afford  some  profit,  and  furnish  some  amuse- 
ment. Thought  and  language  act  and  re-act  mutually  upon  each 
other.  Sinful  pleasures  blast  the  opening  prospects  of  human 
felicity,  and  degrade  human  honor.  Generosity  is  a  splendid  vir- 
tue, which  many  persons  are  very  fond  of  ?  As  no  one  is  without 
his  failings,  so  few  want  good  qualities. 

632.  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

1.  Figurative  language  must  be  used  sparingly,  and  never,  ex- 
cept when  it  serves  to  illustrate  or  enforce  what  is  said. 

2.  Figures  of  speech,  when  used,  should  be  such  as  appear  na- 
tural, not  remote  or  foreign  from  the  subject,  and  not  pursued  toe 
far. 

3.  Literal  and  figurative  language  ought  never  to  be  blended 
together. 

4.  When  figurative  language  is  used,  the  same  figure  should  be 
preserved  throughout,  and  different  figures  never  jumbled  together. 

EXERCISES. 

No  human  happiness  is  so  serene  as  not  to  contain  some  alloy. 
I  intend  to  make  use  of  these  words  in  the  thread  of  my  specula- 
tions. Hope,  the  balm  of  life,  darts  a  ray  of  light  through  the 
thickest  gloom.  Let  us  keep  our  mouths  with  a  bridle,  and  steer 
our  vessel  so  as  to  avoid  the  rocks  and  shoals  which  meet  us  at 
every  step.  We  are  all  embarked  on  a  troubled  sea,  and  every 
step  of  our  journey  brings  us  into  new  perils.  Let  us  keep  alive 
the  flame  of  devotion  in  the  soul,  and  not  suffer  our  minds  to  sink 
into  utter  indifference  about  spiritual  matters. 

TRANSPOSITION  AND  VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION. 

633.  As  a  preparatory  step  to  the  important  business  of  com- 
position, the  pupil,  after  he  has  acquired  a  knowledge  of  gram- 
mar, may  be  exercised  with  great  advantage  upon  the  transpo 
sition  of  words  and  members  in  sentences,  so  as  to  try  in  how 
many  different  ways  the  same  thought  or  sentiment  may  be  ex 
pressed.     This  will   give  him  a  considerable  command  of  lan- 
guage, and  prove,  at  the   same  lime,  a  source  of  considerable 
mental  cultivation.     It  is  often  necessary  to  give  an  entirely  new 
turn  to  an  expression,  before  a  sentence  can  be  rendered  elegant 
jr  even  perspicuous. 


188  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  96 

There  are  chiefly  four  ways  in  which  the  mode  of  expressing  & 
thought  may  be  varied. 

1.  By  changing  an  active  into  a  passive,  or  a  passive  into  an 
active  verb-,  as,  The  sun  dissolves  the  snow,  The  snow  is  dis- 
tolved  by  the  sun. 

2.  By  inversions  or  transpositions,  which  consist  in  changing 
the  order  in  which  the  words  stand  in  the  sentence-,  as,  Compe- 
tence may  be  acquired  by  industry,  By  industry,  competence  may 
be  acquired. 

3.  By  changing  an  affirmative  into  a  negative,  or  a  negative 
into  an  affirmative,  of  an  entirely  contrary  character;  as,  Virtue 
promotes  happiness-,  Virtue  does  not  promote  misery. 

4.  By  either  a  partial  or  an  entire  change  of  the  words  em- 
ployed to  express  any  sentiment-,  as,  Diligence  and  application 
are  the  best  means  of  improvement  -,  Nothing  promotes  improve 
ment  like  diligence  and  application. 

EXERCISES  ON  TRANSPOSITION. 

The  Roman  state  evidently  declined,  in  proportion  to  the  in- 
crease of  luxury.  I  am  willing  to  remit  all  that  is  past,  provided 
it  can  be  done  with  safety.  A  good  man  has  respect  to  the  feel- 
ings of  others  in  all  that  he  says  or  does.  Bravely  to  contend  for 
a  good  cause  is  noble-,  silently  to  suffer  for  it,  is  heroic.  Provided 
he  is  himself  in  comfortable  circumstances,  the  selfish  man  has 
no  concern  about  the  circumstances  of  others.  The  man  who  can 
make  light  of  the  sufferings  of  others,  is  himself  entitled  to  no 
compassion.  Sloth  is  one  of  man's  deadliest  enemies.  He  who 
made  light  spring  from  primeval  darkness,  will,  at  last,  make 
order  rise  from  the  seeming  confusion  of  the  world. 

EXAMPLE    OF  TRANSPOSITION. 

The  Roman  state  evidently  declined,  in  proportion  to  the  in- 
crease of  luxury.  In  proportion  to  the  increase  of  luxury,  the 
Roman  state  evidently  declined.  The  Roman  state,  in  proper- 
tion  to  the  increase  of  luxury,  evidently  declined. 

EXERCISES  ON  VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION. 

His  conduct  was  less  praiseworthy  than  his  sister's.  It  is 
better  to  be  moved  by  false  glory,  than  not  to  be  moved  at  all.  I 
shall  attend  the  meeting,  if  I  can  do  it  with  convenience.  He 
who  improves  in  modesty,  as  he  improves  in  knowledge,  has  an 
undoubted  claim  to  greatness  of  mind.  The  spirit  of  true  religion 
breathes  gentleness  and  affability.  There  is  no  such  obstacle  to 
the  attainment  of  excellence,  as  the  power  of  producing,  with 
facility,  what  is  tolerably  good.  Industry  is  not  only  the  in- 
strument of  improvement,  but  the  foundation  of  pleasure.  A  wolf, 
let  into  the  sheep-fold,  will  devour  the  sheep. 

EXAMPLE  OF    VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION. 

His  conduct  was  less  praiseworthy  than  his  sister's.  His  sis- 
ter's conduct  was  more  praiseworthy  than  his.  His  sister's  mode 


§  96.  (COMPOSITION.  189 

of  acting  was  entitled  to  more  praise  than  his.     His  conduct  waa 
less  entitled  to  praise,  than  that  of  his  sister,  etc. 

Another  exercise,  not  destitute  of  utility  as  a  foundation  for 
composition,  consists  in  giving  the  pupil,  especially  if  very  young 
a  list  of  words,  with  directions  to  form  from  them  such  sentences 
as  shall  contain  these  words. 

EXERCISES. 

Construct  a  number  of  such  sentences  as  shall  each  contain  one 
or  more  of  the  following  words :  Contentment,  behavior,  conside- 
ration, elevation,  distance,  application,  respect,  duty,  intercourse 
evidence,  social,  bereavement,  nonsensical,  absurdity,  elucidate 
consternation,  temperance,  luxury,  disarm,  expatiate,  etc. 

LETTERS. 

634.  One  of  the  simplest  and  yet  most  useful  species  of  compo- 
sition, is  letter-writing.  This  species  of  composition  may  oa 
practised  either  by  way  of  real  correspondence  between  those  pur- 
suing the  same  studies,  or  it  may  consist  of  letters  written  to 
imaginary  correspondents.  The  following  are  a  few  topics  adap- 
ted to  compositions  of  this  latter  kind: 

Letter  1st.  Write  to  a  friend  at  a  distance.  State  to  him  the 
object  of  your  writing.  Tell  him  what  studies  you  are  pursuing, 
and  how  you  like  them.  Mention  how  yourself  and  friends  are. 
Give  an  account  of  some  of  the  changes  which  have  lately  been 
made,  or  are  now  making  in  your  neighborhood ;  and  conclude  by 
expressing  a  desire  either  to  see  him,  or  hear  from  him  soon. 

Letter  2d.  Write  to  a  companion  an  account  of  a  long  walk 
which  you  lately  had.  Tell  him  whether  you  were  alone  or  in 
company.  Mention  what  particular  things  struck  you  by  the 
way  •,  and  enumerate  all  the  incidents  that  occurred  of  any  mo- 
ment. 

Letter  3d.  Write  to  a  friend  who  is  supposed  to  have  sent  you 
a  present  of  books,  and  thank  him  for  such  kindness.  Tell  him 
the  use  you  intend  to  make  of  them;  and  inform  him  to  what 
particular  books  you  are  most  partial.  Conclude  by  giving  some 
account  of  those  you  have  lately  been  reading,  and  how  you  like 
them. 

Letter  4th.  Write  to  a  friend  supposed  to  be  going  abroad. 
Describe  to  him  how  you  would  feel  if  called  to  leave  your  friends 
and  your  native  country.  Express  your  regret  at  losing  him, 
but  state  your  hope  that  you  will  not  forget  each  other  when  seas 
roll  between  you.  Request  him  to  write  to  you  frequently-,  and 
advise  him  to  be  careful  about  his  health,  and  of  the  society  he 
keeps. 

Letter  5th.  Write  to  a  friend  at  a  distance-,  and  give  him  an  ac- 
count of  a  sail  which  you  lately  had  in  a  steam-boat.  Mention 


190  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  96 

what  places  you  visited -,  and  state  the  objects  that  most  delighted 
you.  Tell  him  how  long  you  were  away,  what  sort  of  weather 
you  had,  and  what  were  your  feelings  upon  returning  home. 

Letter  6th.  Write  to  a  friend  an  account  of  the  church  you  were 
at  last  Sabbath.  Tell  who  preached-,  mention  the  psalms  or 
hymns  that  were  sung-,  and  the  portions  of  Scripture  that  were 
read.  State  the  texts  from  which  the  minister  preached-,  and 
give  your  opinion  of  the  different  sermons. 

These  have  been  given  as  mere  specimens  of  the  subjects  upoa 
which  the  student,  who  has  acquired  a  knowledge  of  grammar, 
may  be  required  to  write.  The  prudent  and  skilful  teacher  will 
be  enabled  to  multiply  and  vary  them  at  pleasure,  and  to  any  extent. 

REPRODUCTION. 

635.  Another  method  of  exercising  the  minds  of  pupils  in  com- 
position, consists  in  reading  some  simple  story  or  narrative,  till 
such  time  as  they  are  acquainted  with  the  facts,  and  then  direct 
ing  them  to  express  these  in  their  own  words.     A  still  further, 
and  perhaps  even  a  simpler  method,  is,  to  take  advantage  of  a 
young  person's  having  given  some  account  of  what  he  has  either 
seen,  heard,  or  read,  and  desire  him  to  commit  to  writing  what 
he  has  stated  orally. 

THEMES. 

636.  The  next  step  in  composition  is  the  writing  of  regular 
themes.     The  subject,  however,  should  always  be  such  as  is  not 
above  the  capacity  of  the  person  who  is  desired  to  compose-,  for,  if 
it  is,  the  whole  benefit  resulting  from  the  exercise  will  be  nulli- 
fied. 

A  theme  is  a  regular  set  subject  upon  which  a  person  is  requir- 
ed to  write  -,  or  the  dissertation  that  has  been  written  upon  such 
a  subject.  Some  of  the  simplest  subjects  for  themes  are  those 
drawrn  from  natural  history,  or  natural  philosophy.  At  all  events 
they  should  not,  in  the  first  instance,  be  drawn  from  subjects  of 
an  abstruse  and  abstract  character. 

637.  The  following  may  serve  as  specimens  in  this  department: 
Theme  1st.  The  horse.     1.  Describe  what  sort  of  animal  the 

horse  is.  2.  Tell  some  of  the  different  kinds.  3.  Mention  the 
various  ways  in  which  this  noble  animal  is  serviceable  to  man. 
4.  State  what  would  be  the  consequence  of  wanting  him.  5. 
Mention  the  treatment  to  which  he  is  entitled,  and  the  cruelty  of 
ill-using  such  a  creature. 

Write  themes  on  the  cow,  the  dog,  the  sheep,  and  upon  poultry , 
and  follow  the  same  plan  as  that  which  you  followed  in  writing 
upon  the  horse. 

Theme  2d.  The  sun.  1.  Begin  by  stating  what  the  sun  is.  2. 
Tell  all  you  know  of  its  size,  figure,  and  distance  from  our  earth. 
3.  Mention  the  effect  it  has  upon  the  earth,  and  the  benefits  we 


$  96.  COMPOSITION.  191 

derive  from  it.  4.  State  what  would  be  the  consequence  if  the 
sun  were  extinguished  •,  and  what  our  feelings  ought  to  he  toward 
the  Supreme  Being,  for  such  an  object. 

Write  themes  upon  the  moon,  the  stars,  fire,  air,  and  water; 
and  in  all,  follow  the  same  plan.  » 

Theme  3d.  Day  and  night.  1.  Tell  what  you  mean  by  day 
and~ftight.  2.  State  whether  they  are  always  alike  long;  and 
what  is  the  advantage  arising  from  their  length  being  different 
at  different  seasons.  3.  Mention  the  different  purposes  for  which 
they  are  adapted.  4.  Say  of  what  the  continued  succession  of 
day  and  night  is  fitted  to  remind  us,  and  how  this  should  lead  us 
to  act. 

Write  themes  upon  the  different  seasons,  and  upon  mountains, 
rivers,  and  the  tides  of  the  sea-,  and  follow  a  similar  plan  in  all. 

Theme  4th.  On  Composition.  1.  Explain  what  you  mean  by 
this  term.  2.  Point  out  the  necessity  of  studying  this  art,  by 
showing  how  much  it  contributes  to  add  to  the  value  of  one's 
knowledge.  3.  Mention  what  is  necessary  to  fit  one  for  compos- 
ing well.  4.  State  the  means  by  which  skill  in  this  art  is  to  be 
obtained. 

Theme  5th.  On  Company.  1.  Explain  what  you  mean  by 
company.  2.  Show  how  natural  it  is  for  man  to  seek  society, 
3.  State  the  danger  of  keeping  either  too  much  company,  or  of 
keeping  bad  company.  4.  Point  out  the  advantages  of  good  com 
pany. 

Write  themes  upon  Conversation,  Study,  Improvement  of  Time, 
Choice  of  Books,  Memory,  the  different  Organs  of  Sense,  etc.  •,  and 
in  all  follow  the  same  method  as  you  did  in  writing  on  Company. 

Theme  6th.  Narratives.  Describe  the  place  or  scene  of  the 
actions  related — the  persons  concerned  in — the  time — posture  of 
affairs — state  of  mind,  motives,  ends,  etc.  of  the  actors-, — results. 

Y/rite  themes  upon  The  discovery  of  America.  The  French 
War.  The  Revolutionary  War.  The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 
The  French  Revolution. 

Theme  1th.  Dissertations  on  remarkable  events  in  sacred  or 
profane  history — The  place — the  origin — the  circumstances — re- 
sults— moral  influence,  etc. 

Following  this  or  a  similar  arrangement  of  parts,  write  a  com- 
position on  The  Creation — Death  of  Abel — The  Deluge — The 
World  after  the  Flood— The  Tower  of  Babel— The  Israelites  in 
Egypt — Their  deliverance  from  it — The  giving  of  the  law  from 
Sinai — The  Advent  of  the  Messiah,  his  death,  resurrection — 
Destruction  of  Jerusalem,  etc. — The  Siege  of  Troy — Rise  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire — The  Crusades— The  Burning  of  Mos- 
cow—The Battle  of  Waterloo— The  Death  of  Bonaparte,  etc. 

Theme  8th.  Give  an  account  of  some  of  the  most  distinguished 
characters  in  different  ages  of  the  World — Warriors,  Statesmen, 


192 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


96 


J 

Artists,  Philosophers,  Poets,  Orators,  Divines,  Philanthropists  5 
— mentioning  what  is  known  respecting  their  country,  parentage, 
education,  character,  principles,  exploits,  influence  on  society  for 
good  or  evil,  death. 

638.  The  following  iist  of  themes  is  selected  from  Parker's 
Exercises  in  Composition. 


1.  On  Attention, 

26. 

On  Fortune, 

51. 

On  Ocean, 

2.    "  Adversity, 

27. 

4;   Fear, 

52. 

"   Pride, 

3.    "   Ardor  of  mind. 

28. 

"   Forgiveness, 

53. 

"   Party  Spirit, 

4.    "   Art, 

29. 

'*   Government, 

54. 

"   Poverty, 

5.    "   Attachment, 

30. 

11   Grammar, 

55. 

"   Principle, 

6.    "    Anger, 

31. 

"   Greatness,  true, 

56. 

"   Perseverance, 

7.    "    Air, 

32. 

"   Genius, 

57. 

"   Patriotism, 

8.    "    Benevolence, 

33. 

*    Habit, 

58. 

"    Politeness, 

9.    "    Beauty, 

34. 

'  Honour, 

59. 

"   Providence, 

10.    "   Biography, 

35. 

4    Happiness, 

60. 

"  Punctuality, 

11. 

•    Bad  Scholar, 

36. 

(    Humility, 

61. 

"   Poetry, 

12. 

'    Charity, 

37. 

'   Hypocrisy, 

62. 

"   Piety, 

13. 

1    Clemency, 

38. 

"    History, 

63. 

"   Religion, 

14. 
15. 

'    Compassion, 
'    Conscience, 

39. 

40. 

"   Hope, 
"   Indolence, 

64. 
65. 

"    Reading, 
"   Sincerity, 

16. 

'    Constancy, 

41. 

"   Industry, 

66. 

"    Summer, 

17. 

'   Carelessness, 

42. 

"   Ingratitude, 

67. 

11   Spring, 

18. 

'   Curiosity, 

43. 

"   Justice, 

08. 

'{   Sun, 

19. 

4    Cheerfulness, 

44. 

'   Learning, 

69. 

"    System, 

20. 

c    Contentment, 

45. 

'   Love  of  Fame, 

70. 

'   Truth, 

21. 

'    Diligence, 

46. 

'   Music, 

71. 

'   Time, 

22. 

c   Duplicity, 

47. 

'    Moon, 

72. 

4    Talent, 

23. 

'   Early  rising, 

48. 

'   Novelty, 

73. 

'    Vanity, 

24. 

'    Envy. 

49 

4  Night, 

74. 

'   Virtue, 

25.     '    Friendship, 

50. 

'   Order, 

75. 

4  Wealth 

76.  Knowledge  is  Power, 

77.  Progress  of  Error, 

78.  Progress  of  Truth, 

79.  Government  of  the  Tongue, 

80.  Government  of  the  Temper, 

81.  Government  of  the  Affections, 

82.  Local  Attachments, 

83.  The  Power  of  Association, 
84    The  Immortality  of  the  Soul, 

85.  The  Uses  of  Knowledge, 

86.  Power  of  Conscience, 

87.  The  Power  of  Habit, 

88.  Life  is  Short, 

89.  Miseries  of  Idleness, 

90.  Never  too  old  to  learn, 


91.  Public  Opinion, 

92.  Diligence  ensures  success, 

93.  Idleness  destroys  Character, 

94.  Contrivance  proves  design, 

95.  Avoid  Extremes, 

96.  Visit  to  an  Almshouse. 

97.  Pleasures  of  Memory, 

98.  Example  better  than  Precept, 

99.  Misery  is  wed  to  Guilt, 

100.  Value  of  Time, 

101.  Virtue  the  way  to  Happiness, 

102.  No  one  lives  for  Himself, 

103.  Thou  God  sees!  me, 

104.  Trust  not  Appearances, 

i  AC     tun ». :_      :_    T»:_U» 


105.  Whatever  is,  is  Right 

106.  "  An  honest  man's  the  noblest  work  of  God.'; 

107.  Every  man  the  architect  of  his  own  fortune. 

108.  Man,  "  Mysterious  link  in  being's  endless  chain.7' 

109  u  A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing.'7 

110  How  blessings  brighten,  as  they  take  their  flight. 

111  Advantages  derived  from  the  invention  of  the  mariner's  compass — of  tht 

telescope— the  steam  enpire— the  art  of  printing— of  gunpowdei 

112.  History  of  a  needle — a  cent— a  Bible — a  beaver  hat. 

113.  Description  of  a  voyage  to  England—Coast  of  Africa—Constantinople- 

South  America— East  Indies— China. 


APPENDIX. 


I.     GRAMMAR. 

The  object  of  Grammar,  in  a  general  sense,  is  to  investigate 
the  principles  of  language,  and  from  a  careful  analysis  of  these, 
to  lay  down  a  system  of  rules  and  principles,  by  observing  which, 
we  may  be  enabled  to  express  our  thoughts  in  a  particular  lan- 
guage in  a  correct  and  proper  manner,  feuch  a  collection  of  rules 
and  principles  applicable  to  the  English  language,  with  directions 
for  their  use  in  the  most  simple,  brief,  and  convenient  manner, 
has  been  attempted  in  the  preceding  pages. 

When  we  speak  of  Grammar  as  a  system  of  rules,  it  is  not  to 
be  understood  that  the  rules  are  first  established,  and  the  language 
afterwards  modelled  in  conformity  to  these.  The  very  reverse  is 
the  fact:  language  is  antecedent  to  grammar.  u  No  grammarian 
can  of  his  own  authority  alter  the  phraseology  of  any  expression, 
or  assign  to  a  word  a  signification  different  from  that  which  has 
been  allotted  to  it  by  established  usage.  He  must  take  the  lan- 
guage as  it  is,  not  as  he  would  wish  it  to  be.  He  may,  indeed, 
recommend  this  or  that  mode  of  expression,  as  more  agreeable  to 
analogy,  but  if  must  remain  with  the  public  whether  or  not  his 
advice  be  adopted.  From  the  decision  of  general,  reputable,  and 
established  usage,  there  lies  no  appeal.  His  business  is, to  observe 
the  agreement  or  disagreement  of  words,  the  similarity  or  dis- 
similarity between  different  forms  of  expression,  to  reduce  those 
that  are  similar,  under  the  same  class,  and,  by  a  careful  induction 
of  particulars,  establish  general  propositions.  Nor  is  it  abso- 
lutely necessary  that  he  should  know  by  what  means  this  or  that 
phraseology  came  into  use,  or  why  this  or  that  word  forms  an 
exception  to  a  general  rule;  it  is  sufficient  for  his  purpose  if  he 
does  know  that  it  is  an  exception,  and,  knowing  it,  points  it  out 
to  others. 

"  By  arranging  the  various  rules  and  principles  of  a  language 
into  a  systematic  form,  permanency  is  given  to  what  wrould  other- 
wise be  subject  to  fluctuation,  or  involved  in  obscurity-,  the  rela- 
tive connection  and  importance  of  the  rules  become  clearly  as(er 
tained,  and  the  whole  is  rendered  more  easy  of  being  acquired 
and  retained,  and  applied  with  facility  and  correctness. 

u  Prior  to  the  publication  of  Lowth's  excellent  little  grammar, 
the  grammatical  study  of  our  own  language  formed  no  part  of  the 
ordinary  method  of  instruction,  and  consequently  the  writings  of 
the  best  authors  were  frequently  inaccurate.  Subsequent  to  thai 
period,  however,  attention  has  been  paid  to  this  important  subject, 
and  the  change  that  has  taken  place  both  in  our  written  ana  oral 
language,  has  evidenced  the  decided  advantages  resulting  from 
such  a  plan. 

1* 


194  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

"  The  Grammar  which  has  attained  the  greatest  celebrity  for 
general  use,  is  that  by  Mr.  MuiTay.  In  this  work,  he  has  embo- 
died the  principles  and  rules  which  were  deduced  by  the  most  ce- 
lebrated grammarians  that  preceded  him  •,  and  by  arranging  the 
whole  in  a  better  order,  has  rendered  it  decidedly  superior  to 
every  work  of  the  kind  which  existed  before  its  appearance."  - 
HUey's  Preface. 

Since  that  time,  many  works  have  been  published  of  various 
degrees  of  merit,  most  of  which  have  had  for  their  object,  not  so 
much  to  investigate  more  thoroughly  the  principles  of  language, 
as  to  simplify  and  elucidate  principles  already  investigated.  The 
Etymology  and  Syntax  of  Dr.  Crombie,  lately  published,  though 
not  intended  for  the  use  of  schools,  is  a  most  valuable  addition  to 
the  stock  of  original  works  on  this  subject.  u  The  industry  of 
research,  and  acuteness  of  discrimination,  which  he  has  evinced 
in  the  collection  and  comparison  of  different  forms  of  speech, 
have  thrown  great  light  upon  many  difficulties-,  and  his  conclu- 
sions must,  in  general  serve  as  landmarks  to  the  future  traveller. ' 
Among  recent  valuable  contributions  to  our  stock  of  literature  crj 
this  subject,  may  be  noticed  the  work  of  Mr.  Harrison,  on  uThe 
rise,  progress,  and  present  structure  of  the  English  language," 
published  in  England  in  1848,  and  republished  here  in  1850  •,  and 
the  large  work  of  William  C.  Fowler,  late  Professor  of  Rhetoric 
in  Amherst  College,  entitled  "  The  English  language  in  its  Ele- 
ments and  Forms."  Some  works  of  an  eccentric  character  have 
also  at  times  appeared,  whose  authors,  smitten  with  a  passion  for 
novelty  or  singularity,  have  manifested  much  more  capacity  for 
pulling  down,  than  for  building  up — for  rinding  fault  with  thai 
which  is  good  already,  than  for  producing  something  better  in  itj 
place.  Still  the  labors  of  even  these  are  not  without  their  use. 
Like  the  violence  of  the  tempest  which  shakes  the  sturdy  oak, 
and  causes  it  to  strike  its  roots  deeper  and  firmer  in  the  parent 
soil,  they  only  more  firmly  establish  that  which  can  not  be 
overthrown. 

The  principles  of  language,  which  grammar  as  a  science  inves- 
tigates, are  general  and  permanent.  They  belong  to  all  languages, 
and  remain  the  same,  however  they  may  be  classed,  or  in 
whatever  terms  they  may  be  expressed.  Hence  it  is  that  the 
grammars  of  all  languages  are  substantially  the  same,  and  differ 
only  in  minor  details,  as  idiom  and  usage  require.  This  is  as  it 
should  be.  No  good  reason  can  be  given  for  making  a  grammar 
of  the  English  language,  for  example,  toto  ccelo,  different  from  the 
grammars  of  other  languages,  ancient  or  modern.  And  yet  it  has 
been,  and  still  is,  the  practice  of  some  to  declaim  against  the  ex- 
isting systems  of  English  Grammar,  because,  as  they  say,  they 
are  conformed  to  the  grammars  of  the  dead  languages,  or  to  those 
of  foreign  nations.  Though  such  efforts  may  prevail  for  a  season 
and  with  a  few,  more  mature  reflection  usually  dissipates  the  de- 
lusion. It  is  well  known  that  novices  in  every  science  are  con- 
stantly making  discoveries;  and  these  appear  to  them  for  a  time 


APPENDIX.  195 

so  important  and  wonderful,  that  they  sometimes  think  they  can- 
not fail  to  astonish  the  world,  revolutionize  the  science,  and  im 
mortalize  themselves.  It  happens,  too,  that  such  discoveries  are 
usually  in  proportion  to  the  want  of  discrimination  and  intelli- 
gence of  those  who  make  them.  A  more  extended  acquaintance 
with  facts  and  principles  will  often  prove,  even  to  themselves, 
that  their  great  discoveries  are  only  the  crude  and  exploded  fan- 
cies of  other  men,  and  other  days,  long  since  abandoned  as  unte- 
nable and  worthless.  Discoveries  of  such  a  character  are  some- 
times made  in  grammar  also ;  and  such,  too,  are  often  their  origin 
and  their  end. 

The  system  o'f  English  grammar,  as  we  now  have  it  in  the  best 
works,  or  in  what  some  are  pleased  to  call  the  U01d  Grammars," 
rests  on  a  more  solid  foundation.  Men  of  sound,  discriminating, 
and  philosophical  minds — men  prepared  for  the  work  by  long  stu- 
dy, patient  investigation,  and  extensive  acquirements,  have  la 
bored  for  ages  to  improve  and  perfect  it  5  and  nothing  is  hazarded 
in  asserting,  that  should  it  be  unwisely  abandoned,  it  will  be  long 
before  another,  equal  in  beauty,  stability,  and  usefulness,  be  pro- 
duced in  its  stead. 

II.     CLASSIFICATION  OF  WORDS. 

LANGUAGE,  written  or  spoken,  consists  of  words.  In  combi- 
•-ing  these  into  propositions  and  sentences,  so  as  to  express  our 
ideas  in  a  correct  and  intelligent  manner,  an  accurate  knowledge 
of  their  forms,  changes,  and  functions,  is  necessary ,  and  this  again 
can  be  attained  only  by  a  proper  classification  of  them  according  to 
their  distinguishing  characteristics  and  uses  in  the  communication 
of  thought.  The  importance  of  this  has  always  been  felt  by 
grammarians,  and  various  classifications  have  been  made,  differing 
from  each  other  according  to  the  principles  assumed  as  their  basis. 
The  essentials  of  speech  were  anciently  supposed  to  be  sufficiently 
designated  by  the  Noun  and  the  Verb',  to  which  was  subsequently 
added,  the  Conjunction.  In  modern  times,  the  parts  of  speech 
have  been  denominated  Substantives,  Attributives,  Definitives,  and 
Connectives.  Such  a  classification,  however,  is  too  general  to  be 
of  much  use  in  grammar.  To  group  together  under  one  head, 
words  specifically  different  in  their  character  and  use,  can  tend 
only  to  confusion ;  andto  multiply  divisions  which  can  serve  no 
practical  purpose,  is  an  extreme  equally  unprofitable. 

By  a  careful  analysis  of  language,  we  find  that  some  words  are 
employed  to  express  the  names  of  things,  others  to  indicate  theii 
qualities;  some  express  action  or  state  under  various  modifications 5 
others  are  used  in  connection  with  these  to  point  out  tircumstan- 
•ces  of  time,  place,  manner,  order,  degree,  etc.:  some  are  em- 
ployed to  denote  certain  relations  of  things  to  each  other,  and 
others  again  chiefly  to  connect  the  different  parts  of  a  sentence 
together.  This  diversity  in  the  use  of  words  is  as  real,  and  as 
distinctly  marked  as  the  functions  of  the  bones,  muscies,  arteries, 


196  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

and  nerves  oi  the  human  system,  and  forms  a  basis  of  classifica- 
tion equally  proper  in  all  languages. 

On  this  principle  of  classification,  the  later  Greek  grammarians 
divided  words  into  eight  classes  or  parts  of  speech;  viz., the  Noun, 
Article,  Pronoun,  Verb,  Participle,  Adverb,  Preposition,  and 
Conjunction.  The  Romans  had  no  article,  but  retained  the  same 
number  by  distinguishing  between  adverbs  and  interjections. 
Both  included  under  the  term  noun,  the  names  of  things,  and 
words  expressive  of  their  qualities-,  the  former  they  called  Sub 
stantive  Nouns  ;  the  latter,  Adjective  Nouns.  These  wrere  subse- 
quently ranked  as  two  distinct  classes,  commonly  called  Nouns 
or  Substantives,  and  Adjectives  ;  and  the  participle  was  restored 
to  the  verb,  to  which  it  properly  belongs.  This  classification, 
with  little  variation,  has  been  adopted  by  the  best  English  gram- 
marians, and  remains  in  general  use  even  at  this  day-,  and  though 
not  absolutely  perfect,  or  incapable  of  improvement,  still  it  is  suf- 
ficient for  all  practical  purposes,  and  is  perhaps,  on  the  whole, 
the  best  that  has  yet  been  proposed.  Objections  to  it  merely  on 
the  ground  that  it  agrees  with  the  generally  received  classification 
of  ancient,  or  foreign  languages,  are  just  about  as  reasonable  as 
objections  to  the  anatomical  classifications  of  ancient  or  foreign 
nations  would  be,  merely  because  they  happen  to  differ  in  stature, 
complexion,  or  features,  from  ourselves.  Such  objections  have 
been,  and  still  continue  to  be  made,  the  futility  of  which  needs 
no  better  illustration  than  the  fact,  that,  after  all,  their  authors 
have  offered  little  else  in  its  stead,  than  the  same,  or  nearly  the 
same  divisions  under  different  names. 

III.     THE  NOUN  OR  SUBSTANTIVE. 

The  characteristic  of  this  class  of  words,  is  that  they  are  names. 
Every  word  that  is  the  name  of  any  thing  that  exists,  whether 
material  or  immaterial,  or  of  any  thing  that  is  or  can  be  made 
the  subject  of  thought  or  discourse,  is  a  noun.  Hence  it  follows, 
that  letters,  marks,  or  characters,  and  words  used  independently 
of  their  meaning,  and  merely  as  things  spoken  of,  are  nouns  5  thus, 
A  is  a  vowel;  honor  is  sometimes  spelled  with  a  u.  and  sometimes 
without  it;  th  has  two  sounds;  us  is  a  pronoun;  I  will  have  no  ifs 
or  bnis ;  4~  is  the  sign  of  addition.  Hence,  also,  the  infinitive 
mood,  a  participle,  a  member  of  a  sentence,  or  a  proposition, 
forming  together  the  subject  of  a  discourse,  or  the  object  of  a  verb 
or  preposition,  and  being  the  name  of  an  act  or  circumstance,  are 
in  construction  regarded  as  nouns,  and  are  usually  called  "sub- 
stantive phrases;1'  as,  "To  play  is  pleasant,"  "His  being  an  ex- 
pert dancer  is  no  recommendation,"  "  Let  your  motto  be  'Ho- 
nesty is  the  best  policy."1 " 

The  ACCIDENTS  of  the  noun,  in  English,  are,  in  general,  the 
same  as  in  other  languages,  i.  e.  they  have  Person,  Gender,  Num- 
ber, and  Case  ;  though  in  the  details  of  these,  there  is  some  di- 
versity in  different  languages,  and  even  in  different  grammars  of 
the  same  language. 


APPENDIX.  197 

IV.  PERSON  OF  NOUNS. 

The  person  of  nouns  is  not  determined  by  any  difference  of 
form,  as  in  pronouns,  but  simply  by  their  relation  to  the  discourse, 
In  direct  discourse,*  a  noun  used  by  a  speaker  or  writer  to  de- 
signate himself,  is  said  to  be  of  the  first  person  •,  used  to  desig- 
nate the  person  addressed,  it  is  said  to  be  of  the  second  person- 
and,when  used  to  designate  a  person  or  thing  spoken  of,  it  is  said 
to  be  of  the  third  person.  It  is  obvious  then  from  the  nature  of 
the  case,  that  those  words  only  can  be  of  the  first  or  second  per- 
son, which  denote  intelligent  beings,  or  which  by  personification 
are  regarded  as  such,  for  no  other  can  either  speak  or  properly  be 
spoken  to,  and  they  are  usually  in  apposition  with  the  first  or 
second  personal  pronouns;  as,  u  1,  Artaxerxes  make  a  decree-,'1 
*'I,  thy  father-in-law  Jethro,  am  come  unto  theej"  "  Thou,  God 
seest  me." 

A  noun  in  the  predicate,  however,  denoting  either  the  speaker, 
or  the  person  spoken  to,  is  generally  regarded  as  in  the  third  per- 
son-, thus,  "  I  am  he  that  liveth  and  was  dead;"  u  I  am  Alpha 
and  Omega — who  is,  and  who  was,  and  who  is  to  come."  For 
this  construction,  and  the  variation  of  meaning  which  a  change 
of  person  commonly  indicates,  see  §  59,  R.  II,  Rem.  This  rule, 
however,  does  not  hold  universally.  In  the  following  sentence, 
"  Verily  thou  art  a  God  that  hidest  thyself,"  the  word  "  God," 
in  the  predicate,  is  evidently  regarded  as  of  the  second  person. 
So  also  in  the  phrases,  "  It  is  I,"  "  It  is  thou,"  etc.  In  oblique 
discourse,  the  third  person  only  can  be  used. 

As  the  name  of  the  speaker,  or  of  the  person  spoken  to,  is  sel- 
dom expressed  (the  pronouns  /  and  thou,  we  and  T/OM,  being  used 
in  their  stead),  it  seems  to  be  a  useless  waste  of  time,  in  parsing, 
to  mention  the  person  of  a  noun,  unless  it  be  in  the  first  or  second 
person,  which  will  not  happen  more  than  once  in  a  thousand  times. 
Much  time  therefore  will  be  saved,  and  no  loss  sustained,  if  it  be 
considered  as  taken  for  granted,  without  stating  it,  that  a  noun 
is  in  the  third  person,  unless  it  be  otherwise  mentioned. 

V.  GENDER  OF  NOUNS. 

In  all  languages,  the  distinction  of  nouns  with  regard  to  sex, 
das  been  noted.  Every  substantive  denotes  either  a  male  or 
/emale,  or  that  which  is  neither  the  one  nor  the  other.  This 
Accident,  or  characteristic  of  nouns,  is  called  their  Gender. 
In  English,  all  words  denoting  male  animals,  are  considered  as 
masculine;  all  those  denoting  female  animals,  feminine;  and  those 
denoting  things  neither  male  nor  female,  are  termed  neuter.  "In 

^Discourse  is  said  to  be  direct,  when  a  writer  or  speaker  delivers  his  own  sen. 
liments ;  as,  "  I  am  the  man.';  Oblique,  when  he  relates,  in  his  own  language, 
ihe  sayings  of  another;  as,  "  He  says  that  he  is  the  man."  See  Lat,  Gr.  $  111, 
Rule  VI- 

17* 


198  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

this  distribution,"  says  Crornbie,  "we  follow  the  order  of  nature. 
ind  our  language  is,  in  this  respect,  both  simple  and  animated." 
Both  in  Latin  and  Greek,  many  words  denoting  things  without. 
Bex,  are  ranked  as  masculine  or  feminine,  without  any  regard  to 
their  meaning,  but  simply  on  account  of  their  terminations.  In 
French,  all  nouns  are  regarded  as  either  masculine  or  feminine, 
which  is  a  still  greater  departure  from  the  order  and  simplicity  of 
nature,  for  which  the  English  language  on  this  point  is  distin- 
guished. 

Some  have  objected  to  the  designation  of  three  genders  5  they 
think  that  as  there  are  but  two  sexes,  it  would  be  more  philoso- 
phical and  accurate  to  say  there  are  only  two  genders :  and  to 
regard  all  words  not  belonging  to  these,  as  without  gender.  ^  A 
little  reflection,  I  think,  will  show  that  this  objection  has  no  just 
foundation,  either  in  philosophy  or  in  fact,  an<|  that  the  change 
it  proposes  would  be  no  improvement.  It  has  probably  arisen 
from  confounding  the  word  gender,  which  properly  signifies  a 
kind,  class,  or  species  (Lat.  genus,  French  genre),  with  the 
word  sex,  and  considering  them  as  synonymous.  This,  however, 
is  not  the  case;  these  words  do  riot  mean  precisely  the  same  thing, 
and  they  can  not  be  properly  applied  in  the  same  way.  We  never 
say,  "  the  masculine  sex,  the  feminine  sex-,"  nor  "  the  male  gen- 
der, the  female  gender."  In  strict  propriety  of  speech,  the  word 
sex  can  be  predicated  only  of  animated  beings  5  the  word  gender, 
only  of  the  term  by  which  that  being  is  expressed.  The  being 
man,  has  sex,  not  gender;  the  word  man,  has  gender,  not  sex. 
Though  therefore  it  is  very  absurd  to  speak  of  three  sexes,  yet 
it  may  be  very  proper  to  speak  of  three  genders  5  that  is  to  say, 
there  are  three  classes  (genders)  of  nouns,  distinguished  from 
each  other  by  their  relation  to  sex.  One  denotes  objects  of  the 
male  sex,  and  is  called  masculine  ;  another  denotes  objects  of  the 
female  sex,  and  is  called,  feminine;  and  the  third  denotes  objects 
neither  male  nor  female,  for  which  a  name  more  appropriate  thar 
the  term  neuter  need  not  be  desired. 

The  term  "Common  gender,"  applied  to  such  words  as  parer 
child,  friend,  etc.,  does  not  constitute  a  distinct  class  of  words, 
which  are  neither  masculine,  nor  feminine,  nor  neuter,  but  is  used 
for  convenience,  merely  to  indicate  that  such  words  sometimes 
denote  a  male,  and  sometimes  a  female.  Instead  of  "  common,11 
those  who  prefer  it,  may  call  such  words  "masculine  or  feminine." 

VI.     CASE  OF  NOUNS. 

In  the  ancient  languages,  and  also  in  the  modern  languages  of 
Europe,  nouns  in  each  number  have  certain  changes  of  termina 
tion,  called  Cases,  which  serve  to  shew  the  relation  existing  be 
c  tween  them  and  other  words  in  the  sentence.  Of  these,  the  Latin 
has  six;  the  Greek,  five;  the  German,  four;  the  Saxon,  six;  the 
French,  three;  etc.  In  English,  the  only  vaiiation  of  the  noun  in 
*»ach  number,  is  that  used  to  mark  possession,  and,  for  this  reason 


APPENDIX.  199 

stnmouly  called  the  possessive  case.  The  nominative  and  objec- 
tive do  not  differ  in  form,  but  only  in  their  use ;  the  former  being 
used  to  denote  the  subject  of  a  verb,  and  the  latter  to  denote  the 
object  of  a  verb  or  preposition.  The  propriety  of  this  distinction 
is  manifest,  from  the  fact,  that  in  personal  and  relative  pronouns, 
the  objective  case  is  distinguished  from  the  nominative  by  a  change 
of  form. 

VII.     THE  ARTICLE. 

THE  ARTICLE  may  properly  be  regarded  as  an  adjective  word, 
i.  e.  it  is  always  employed  in  connection  with  a  noun,  or  with 
words  and  phrases  used  as  such.  In  Greek,  and  also  in  other 
languages,  it  is  declined  like  the  adjective,  and  comes  under  the 
same  rules  of  concord  with  it.  The  Articles  in  English  are  A  or 
arf,  and  The.  Ofcthese.  the  first  is  used  to  individualize  without 
restricting.  It  is  therefore  appropriately  termed  Indefinite ,  and 
is  never  used  but  with  the  singular  number. 

This  word  is  evidently  a  derivative  of  the  Saxon  numeral  Ant 
(one),  shortened  by  the  absence  of  emphasis  into  An  ;  or  it  may 
be  regarded  as  the  same  word  used  in  a  particular  way.  For  the 
sake  of  euphony,  the  n  is  dropped  before  a  consonant ;  and  be- 
cause most  words  begin  with  a  consonant,  this  of  course  is  its  more 
common  form.  In  the  French,  German,  and  other  languages, 
which  have  the  indefinite  article,  its  form  is  the  same  with  their 
numeral  one,  and,  in  reading  or  speaking,  it  is  distinguished  from 
it  by  emphasis  only.  Still,  in  these  languages  it  is  not  regarded 
as  a  numeral,  its  office  being  specifically  different.  The  office  of 
the  numeral  is  to  designate  number  only — one  as  opposed  to  two 
or  more.  But  though  from  its  nature  this  article  is  joined  only 
with  the  singular,  yet  number-  is  not  the  idea  it  is  used  to  convey, 
but  simply  to  indicate  an  individual  indefinitely.  An  example 
will  illustrate  this.  If  I  say,  u  Will  one  man  be  able  to  carry 
this  burden  so  far?"  I  evidently  oppose  one  to  more,  and  the  an- 
swer might  be,  u  No-,  but  two  men  will."  But  if  I  say,  u  Will 
a  man  be  able  to  carry  this  burden?"  it  is  manifest  the  idea  is  en- 
tirely changed-,  the  reference  is  not  to  number,  but  to  the  species  5 
and  the  answer  might  be,  "No-,  but  a  horse  will."  Translate 
these  two  sentences  into  Latin  or  Greek,  or  any  language  which 
does  not  use  the  indefinite  article,  and  the  first  will  necessarily 
have  the  numeral,  the  second  will  as  necessarily  want  it.  In  this 
respect,  the  English  has  manifestly  a  decided  advantage  over  those 
languages  in  which  the  same  term  is  used  both  as  an  article  and 
a  numeral-,  and  hence  it  appears  to  me,  that  to  class  this  article  as 
a  numeral,  as  some  have  proposed,  would  not  only  be  in  some 
measure  to  relinquish  this  advantage,  but,  by  combining  under 
one  head,  words  wrhose  use  is  so  widely  different,  would  prove  an 
injury  instead  of  an  improvement. 

The  Article  The,  on  the  other  hand,  is  used  to  shew  that  a  word 
is  restricted, or  limited;  and  is  therefore  termed  Definite.  Its  pro- 


200  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

per  office  is  to  call  the  attention  to  a  particular  individual  or  clas 
or  to  any  number  of  such,  and  is  used  with  nouns  in  either  tL 
singular  or  plural  r-nrnber.  This  word  seems  to  be  derived  fror'. 
the  Saxon  Se  (that),  plural  Tha ;  and  is  distinguished  from  the 
demonstratives  this,  and  that,  much  in  the  same  way  that  a  is 
distinguished  fro-m  the  numeral  one.  The  Greeks  had  a  separate 
word  for  this  purpose,  which  the  early  grammarians  called  the 
prepositive  Article,  from  its  position  before  its  noun-,  and  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  relative  pronoun  which  they  called  the  post- 
positive Article,  usually  placed  after  it.  These  two  words,  in 
many  sentences,  were  used  relatively  to  each  other,  and,  like  a 
joint  (Jlrticulus}.  from  which  the  name  is  derived,  served  to  unite 
the  t\vo  members  of  the  sentence  to  which  they  respectively  be- 
longed, into  one  whole.  This  designation,  originally  given  to 
this  word  from  one  of  its  prevailing  uses,  continued  to  be  applied 
to  it  not  only  after  the  postpositive  article  -vjls  more  appropri- 
ately called  the  Relative  pronoun,  but  also  in  cases  in  which  no 
conjunction  of  the  parts  of  a  sentence  was  effected-,  and  modern 
grammarians  have  extended  it  to  the  word  known  as  the  Indefi- 
nite Article.  Whether  a  more  appropriate  designation  for  these 
words  should  now  be  devised,  or  whether  they  might  be  classed 
under  some  other  head,  are  questions  of  no  practical  moment. 
The  words  exist  in  the  language ;  they  have  a  specific  office  to 
perform',  they  have  peculiarities  of  construction  which  belong  to 
no  other  class  of  words ;  they  are  only  two  in  number,  and  are 
easily  distinguished  from  other  parts  of  speech,  and  if  these  con- 
siderations should  not  be  considered  sufficient  to  entitle  them 
strictly  and  philosophically  to  a  separate  denomination,  they  are 
such,  at  any  rate,  as  to  render  it  convenient  and  useful ;  and  if  so, 
it  seems  unwise,  for  the  sake  of  a  trivial  advantage,  even  if  that 
could  be  gained,  to  disturb  the  settled  language  of  grammar  on 
this  point,  and  so  to  destroy  its  present  similarity  to  that  of  most 
other  languages,  in  which  this  division  and  nomenclature  are  re 
ceived. 

In  many  sentences,  The  and  That  are  nearly  equivalent,  and 
the  sense  will  be  the  same  by  using  either  j  as.  U27ic  man,  or  that 
man  who  hath  no  music  in  his  soul,"  etc.  This,  however,  doea 
not  always  hold-,  "  The  difference,"  says  Crombie,  "seems-to  be, 

1st.  The  Article  the,  like  a,  must  have  a  substantive  joined 
with  it  5  whereas  that ,  like  one,  may  have  it  understood  ;  thus.; 
speaking  of  books,  I  may  select  one  and  say,  ;give  me  that-, 
but  not,  c  give  me  the ;'  '  give  me  one ;'  but  not  '  give  me  a.' 
Here  the  analogy  holds  between  a  and  one — the  and  that. 

2d.  "  In  general,  the  distinction  between  the  and  that  seems 
to  be  that  the  latter  marks  the  object  more  emphatically  than  the 
former,  being  indirectly  opposed  to  this.  lean  not,  for  example, 
say,  fc  that  man  with  that  long  beard,'  without  implying:  a  con- 
trast with  this  man  with  this  long  beard  •,  the  word  that  bcina 
always  emphatical  and  discriminative." 


APPENDIX.  201 

VIII.     THE  ADJECTIVE. 

Words  of  this  class  are  supposed  to  have  been  originally  nouns, 
the  names  of  qualities  or  attributes,  and,  from  being  joined  to 
nouns  whose  quality  or  property  they  were  employed  to  express, 
were  called  adjective  nouns.  In  a  more  advanced  state  of  lan- 
guage, with  few  exceptions,  they  cease  to  be  used  as  nouns,  and 
are  employed  to  denote  a  quality,  property,  or  attribute,  not  se- 
parately, but  in  conjunction  writh  its  subject-,  thus,  when  we  say, 
u  a  stone,"  we  have  the  generic  name  of  a  certain  substance,  and 
no  more;  but  when  we  say,  u  a  round  stone, "  u  a  hard  stone," 
''  a  smooth  stone,"  we  have  the  generic  name,  limited  and  de- 
scribed by  the  attributes  of  roundness,  hardness,  smoothness;  and 
these  as  inherent  in  or  belonging  to  the  substance  stone.  The 
adjective  always  implies  the  name  of  a  quality  or  attribute,  but 
does  not  present  %at  idea  alone  to  the  mind,  as  when  WTC  speak 
of  roundness,  haraness,  etc.,  but  that  idea  in  concrete — in  conjunc- 
tion with  its  subject.  Hence  it  follows  that  a  word  which  does 
not  add  to  its  noun  the  idea  of  some  quality  or  attribute  as  be- 
longing to  it  or  connected  with  it,  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  an  ad- 
jective-, and  for  this  reason  the  articles,  and  the  words  generally 
ranked  as  distributive,  demonstrative,  and  indefinite  pronouns, 
though  adjectives  in  construction,  are  not  so  in  sense  and  mean- 
ing. They  express  no  quality,  property,  or  attribute  of  a  noun, 
either  separately  or  in  connection  with  it,  nor  can  they  be  predi- 
cated of  it.  On  the  other  hand,  all  words  which  do  make  such 
an  addition  to  the  noun,  may  properly  be  regarded  as  adjectives, 
though  they  be  often  or  generally  used  for  other  purposes.  Thus 
the  words  u  gold,"  tl  sea,"  "  flower,1'  are  nouns-,  but  when  we 
say  "  a  gold  watch,"  u  sea  water,"  "  a  flower  garden,"  they  are 
used  as  adjectives. 

IX.     COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  denoting  qualities  or  properties  capable  of  increase, 
and  so  of  existing  in  different  degrees,  assume  different  forms,  to 
express  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  such  quality  or  property  in  one 
object  compared  with  another,  or  with  several  others.  These 
forms  are  three,  and  are  appropriately  denominated  the  positive, 
comparative,  and  superlative.  Some  object  to  the  positive  being 
called  a  degree  of  comparison,  because,  in  its  ordinary  use,  it  does 
not,  like  the  comparative  and  superlative  forms,  necessarily  in- 
volve comparison-,  and  they  think  it  more  philosophical  to  say, 
that  the  degrees  of  comparison  are  only  two,  the  comparative  ana 
superlative.  This,  however,  with  the  appearance  of  greater  ex- 
actness, is  little  else  than  a  change  of  words,  and  a  change  perhaps 
not  for  the  better.  If  we  define  a  degree  of  comparison  '  a  form 
of  the  adjective  which  necessarily  implies  comparison,'  this  change 
would  be  an  improvement-,  but  this  is  not  wrhat  grammarians 
mean?  when  they  say  there  are  three  degrees  of  comparison.  Their 
meaning  is,  that  there  are  three  forms  of  the  adjective,  each  of 


202  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR- 

which,  when  comparison  is  intended,  expresses  a  different  degree 
of  the  quality  or  attribute  in  the  things  compared  :  thus,  if  we 
compare  wood,  stone,  and  iron,  with  regard  to  their  weight,  we 
would  say,  u  wood  is  heavy,  stone  is  heavier,  and  iron  is  the  hea* 
viest."  Each  of  these  forms  of  the  adjective  in  this  comparison 
expresses  a  different  degree  of  weight  in  the  things  compared : 
the  positive  heavy  expresses  one  degree-,  the  comparative  heavier, 
another-,  and  the  superlative  heaviest,  a  third-,  and  of  these,  the 
first  is  as  essential  an  element  in  the  comparison  as  the  second  or 
the  third.  Indeed  there  never  can  be  comparison  without  the  state- 
ment of  at  least  two  degrees  5  and  of  these,  the  positive  form  of 
the  adjective,  either  expressed  or  implied,  always  expresses  one. 
"When  we  say  "wisdom  is  more  precious  than  rubies,"  two  de- 
grees of  value  are  compared,  the  one  expressed  by  the  comparative 
amore  precious,"  the  other  necessarily  impl^d.  :  the  meaning  is, 
"  rubies  are  precious,  wisdom  is  more  precio^jj^'1  Though,  there- 
fore, it  is  true  that  the  simple  form  of  the  adjective  does  not  al- 
ways, nor  even  commonly. denote  comparison-,  yet  as  it  always  does 
indicate  one  of  the  degrees  compared  whenever  comparison  exists, 
;t  seems  proper  to  rank  it  with  the  other  forms,  as  a  degree  of  com- 
parison. This  involves  no  impropriety,  it  produces  no  confusion, 
it  leads  to  no  error,  it  has  a  positive  foundation  in  the  nature  of 
comparison,  and  it  furnishes  an  appropriate  and  convenient  appel- 
lation for  this  form  of  the  adjective,  by  which  to  distinguish  it  in 
speech  from  the  other  forms. 

X.     PRONOUNS. 

The  term  pronoun  (Lat.  pronomen)  strictly  means  a  word  used 
for,  or  instead  of  a  noun.  In  English,  pronouns  are  usually  di- 
vided into  four  general  classes,  personal,  relative,  interrogative^ 
and  adjective.  The  first  or  personal,  includes  also  compound  pro- 
nouns, which  in  the  nominative  are  emphatic  or  definite,  and  in 
the  objective,  reflexive,  §  15,  Obs.  2.  The  second,  or  relative 
(except  "  that"),  without  any  change  of  form,  becomes  interroga 
tive  in  asking  questions,  $  17.  All  the  words  in  these  three  classes, 
both  in  sense  and  construction,  are  used  as  nouns,  and  instead  of 
nouns. 

XI.     THE  PKONOUN  YOU. 

You,  the  common  plural  of  thou,  is  now  used  also  to  denote  o&e 
person-,  but,  even  when  it  does  so,  it  always  takes  a  plural  verb. 
This  usage  has  become  so  fixed  and  uniform,  that  some  eminent 
grammarians  contend  for  its  being  regarded  as  singular.  No  ad- 
vantage, however,  would  be  gained  by  adopting  this  proposal ;  and 
it  seems  to  accord  much  more  with  simplicity,  as  wTeil  as  wdtn  fact, 
to  regard  it  as  a  plural  which  has  come  by  use  to  be  applied  in  this 
manner.  In  certain  kinds  of  writing  (243),  we  is  used  in  the  same 
way,  and  so  also  is  the  corresponding  pronoun  in  French,  and 


APPENDIX.  203 

somt  other  modern  languages,  in  which,  however,  it  is  always 
regai ded  as  a  plural  form.* 

XII.     AS,  NOT  A  RELATIVE. 

The  word  AS.  is  by  some  grammarians  considered  as  a  relative. 
That  it  should  not  be  considered  a  relative  in  any  circumstances,  I 
think  is  plain  from  the  following  considerations-. 

1.  It  has  neither  the  meaning,  nor  the  use  of  a  relative.     Its  of- 
fice is  simply  to  connect  things  compared,  and,  together  with  its 
antecedent  word,  to  express  the  idea  of  equality ,  likeness,  fyc.  be 
tween  them;  thus,  "  James  is  as  tall  as  his  father."     "  Your  hat 
is  such  as  mine." 

2.  It  does  not,  like  a  relative,  relate  to  a  noun  or  pronoun  before 
it,  called  the  antecedent,  nor  stand  instead  of  it,  or  of  any  othei 
word,  but  is  relatgi  only  to  the  comparative  word,  as,  such,  so, 
etc.,  in  the  precedMg  clause.     Thus,  in  the  sentence,  u As  many 
as  received  him,"  the  second  as  relates  to  the  first,  and  the  two 
convey  the  idea  of  equality.     Again,  "  Send  such  books  as  you 
have."     Here,  as  refers  not  to  books,  but  to  such.     Take  away 
such,  and  as  can  not  be  used. 

3.  Jls  can  never  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  another  relative  pro- 
noun, nor  another  relative  pronoun  as  a  substitute  for  it.     If,  then, 
it  is  a  relative  pronoun,  it  is,  to  say  the  least,  a  very  unaccommo- 
dating one. 

'  4.  In  sentences  in  which  as  is  said  to  be  a  relative,  it  evidently 
has  the  same  meaning  and  use  as  in  those  in  which  it  is  allowed  to 
be  only  a  conjunction.  Compare  the  following  examples  :  u  As 
many  as  five  men  received  a  reward."  "As  many  as  received 
him."  uAs  many  as  they  can  give."  In  all  these,  the  phrase 
44  as  many  as"  means,  and  is  felt  to  mean,  the  same  thing  5  equality 
of  number.  There  surely,  then,  can  be  no  propriety  in  calling  the 
second  as  a  conjunction  in  the  first  sentence,  and. a  relative  in  the 
other  two.  The  same  thing  will  be  evident  if  we  change  the  ante- 
cedent word-,  thus,  u  Such  books  as  these  are  useful."  "•/Sue/1 
books  as  are  useful."  u  Such  books  as  you  can  give." 

5.  If  the  word  as  in  the  preceding  sentences  and  clauses  is  a  re  • 
lative  pronoun,  for  the  same  reasons  alleged  for  this,  the  word  than 
must  be  a  relative  in  those  which  follow.  The  construction  is 
precisely  the  same:  "More  than  five  books  were  wanted." 
u  More  books  than  are  useful."  "  More  books  than  you  can  give.'- 
Now,  if,  in  the  second  of  these  examples,  than  is  not  a  relative  in 

*"  The  pronoun  you,  though  originally  and  properly  plural,  is  now  generally 
applied  alike  to  one  person  or  to  more.  This  usage,  however  it  may  seern  to 
mvolve  a  solecism,  is  established  by  that  authority  against  which  the  mere  gram, 
marian  has  scarcely  a  right  to  remonstrate.  We  do  not,  however,  think  it  neces. 
wiry  or  advi&able  to  encumber  the  conjugations,  as  some  have  done,  by  introdu. 
cing  this  pronoun  and  the  corresponding  form  of  the  verb,  as  singular.  It  is  ma. 
nifestly  better  to  say  that  the  plural  is  used  for  the  singular,  by  the  figure  enal- 
Iage."—Grovtd  Broivn,  p.  137, 


204  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

the  nominative  case  before  are,  nor  in  the  third  a  relative  in  the 
objective  case  after  can  give,  what  need  for  considering  as  a  rela- 
tive in  the  same  position,  in  the  same  construction,  and  for  the 
same  purpose,  to  denote  comparison?  There  is  the  same  ellipsis 
in  both,  and  the  same  words  necessary  to  be  supplied,  in  the  one 
case,  as  in  the  other-,  thus,  "More  books  than  [those  which] 
were  wanted."  "  More  books  than  [those  which]  are  useful,"  etc. 
So,  "Such  books  as  [those  which]  were  wanted."  "As  many 
books  as  [those  which]  are  necessary,"  etc. 

XIII.     THE  RELATIVE  WHAT. 

u  Various  opinions  have  been  entertained  about  the  nature  of 
the  relative  what.  It  is  said  to  be  'a  compound  relative  pronoun, 
including  both  the  antecedent  and  the  relative,  and  equivalent  to 
that  which,  or,  the  thing  which."1  Though  thisunay  seem  plausible, 
yet  we  shall  find,  on  examination,  that  what  iRiothing  more  than 
a  relative,  and  includes  nothing  else.  Compare  these  two  sen- 
tences : 

"  '  I  saw  whom  I  wanted  to  see' — 

u  '  I  saw  what  I  wanted  to  see.' 

u  If  what,  in  the  latter,  is  equivalent  to  that  ichich.  or  the  thing 
which  ;  ichom,  in  the  former,  is  equivalent  to  him  whom,  OT  the  per- 
son whom.  '  Who  steals  my  purso  steals  trash  '  is  equivalent  to 
he  who.  or  the  man  who. 

"  And  on  the  same  principle,  when  the  relative  is  omitted,  the 
antecedent  should  be  represented  as  equivalent  to  the  relative  and 
the  antecedent.  Thus,  c  I  saw  the  man  I  wanted  to  see.'  Here, 
man  should  be  represented  as  equivalent  to  the  man  whom. 

"  The  cause  of  the  error  in  respect  to  what,  is,  that  the  antece- 
dent is  never  expressed  with  it.  It  is  not  like  the  word  whoy 
which  is  used  both  when  the  antecedent  is  expressed,  and  when 
it  is  omitted.  The  relative  that,  however,  was  formerly  used  in 
many  cases  where  we  use  what,  that  is,  with  the  antecedent 
omitted.  A  few  examples  of  this  will  help  us  to  ascertain  the 
nature  of  what :  i  We  speak  that  we  do  know.' — English  Bible. — 
ll  am  that  I  am.'— Ib. 

"  l  Who  had  been  seen  imagine  mote  thereby, 

T/ia£whylome  of  Hercules  hath  been  told.' — Spenser. 
"  ;  Eschewe  that  wicked  is.' — Gower. 

"  !  Is  it  possible  he  should  not  know  what  he  is,  and  be  that  he 

is.1 — Shaks. 
"  '  Gather  the  sequel  by  that  went  before.' — Ib. 

u  In  these  examples,  that  is  a  relative,  and  is  exactly  synony- 
mous with  what.  No  one  would  contend,  that  that  stands  for 
itself  and  its  antecedent  at  the  same  time.  The  antecedent  is 
omitted  because  it  is  indefinite,  or  easily  supplied." — Butler's 
Grammar,  p.  48. 

remarks  appcnr  to  m*  just  and  conclusive  on  this  point. 


205 


XIV.     ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 


The  fourth  class,  called  adjective  pronouns,  and  sometimes  pro- 
nominal adjectives,  is  usually  subdivided  into  possessive,  distri- 
butive, demonstrative,  and  indefinite.  Of  these,  the  first'  or  pos- 
sessive are  derived  from  the  personal,  and  in  meaning  are  strictly 
pronouns,  being  always  the  representative  or  substitute  of  a  noun-, 
but  in  construction  they  are  adjectives,  and  are  always  joined  with 
a  noun,  and  hence  are  appropriately  denominated  adjective  pro- 
nouns, i.  e.  pronouns  used  adjectively.  "By  some,  they  are  less 
appropriately  classed  with  adjectives,  and  called  pronominal  ad- 
jectives. 

In  many  grammars  the  possessives  my,  thy,  his,  her,  its,  our 
your,  their,  are  set  down  as  the  possessive  case  of  the  personal 
pronouns,  with  mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  its.  ours,  yours,  theirs, 
making  two  forms  of  the  possessive  case;  thus,  my  or  mine,  thy 
or  thine,  etc.  In  tlje  use  of  these  forms  this  difference  is  to  be 
observed,  viz.  that  the  first  is  always  followed  by  a  noun  deno- 
ting the  thing  possessed-,  as,  u  this  is  my  book  :"  the  latter  never 
has  the  noun  following  it,  but  seems  as  it  were  to  include  it,  as 
well  as  to  be  governed  by  it-,  as,  "this  book  is  not  mine,"  equi- 
valent to  "  this  book  is  not  my  book.'1'1  The  possessive  case  of  the 
noun  is  used  both  ways-,  as,  u  this  is  John's  book,"  or,  "  this  book 
is  John's."  Which  of  these  methods  is  adopted  in  teaching  or  stu- 
dying grammar,  is  a  matter  of  no  practical  moment  :  some  gram- 
marians adopt  the  one,  and  some  the  other,  merely  as  a  matter  of 
taste,  without  any  controversy  on  the  subject.  The  classification 
in  the  text  is  preferred  as  being  on  the  whole  more  simple,  because 
the  possessives  my,  thy,  etc.,  like  the  adjective,  can  never  stand 
alone,  as  the  possessive  case  does,  but  must  be  supported  by  a  noun 
following  them-,  thus,  we  say,  "  It  is  the  king's-,1'  "  It  is  yours  •" 
but  we  can  not  say,  "  It  is  your,"  the  presence  of  a  noun  being  ne- 
cessary to  the  last  expression  -,  and  because  if  these  words  are  ranked 
as  the  possessive  case  of  the  personal  pronoun,  it  unnecessarily 
leaves  the  English  language  without  a  class  of  words  correspond- 
ing to  the  possessive  pronouns  of  other  languages.  They  have  pre- 
cisely the  same  meaning.  as  the  Latin  Meus,mea,  meum  ;  or  the 
French  Mon,  ma;  or  the  German  Mein  (or  meiner),  meine,  mein; 
01  the  Anglo-Saxon  (which  is  the  motherof  the  English  language), 
Min,  mine,  min;  they  are  used  in  precisely  the  same  way. 

There  seems,  therefore,  to  be  no  good  reason  for  giving  them  adif 
ferent  classification.  Indeed,  the  only  circumstance  which  renders 
it  possible  to  regard  them  as  a  possessive  case  in  English,  is  that 
like  the  English  adjective  they  are  indeclinable.  Had  they  been 
declinable,  like  the  Latin  or  French,  etc.,  they  never  could  have 
been  used  as  a  possessive  case. 

Some,  again,  regard  my,  thy,  etc.  as  the  only  forms  of  the  posses- 

sive case-,  and  mine,  thine,  etc.  not  as  a  possessive  case  at  all.  but  as 

a  substitute  for  the  possessive  case  of  the  pronoun,  and  the  noun  re- 

ferred to,  together-,  and  that  it  is  in  the  nominative  or  objective  case 

18 


ENCJLiSH    GRAMMAR. 

accouling  as  the  noun  referred  to  would  be,  in  the  full  expression; 
ihus,  u Your  book  is  old,  mine  is  new."  is  equivalent  to  "Your  book 
is  old,  my  book  is  new."  Hence  it  is  inferred  that  mine  is  not  a  pos- 
sessive  case,  but  a  substitute  for  my  book,  and  the  nominative  to  is. 
This,  though  plausible,  is  obviously  incorrect.  If,  instead  of  the  pro- 
noun mine,  we  substitute  a  noun,  that  noun  will  have  to  be  in  the 
possessive  case-,  thus,  u  Your  book  is  old,  John's  is  new."  The 
construction  in  these  two  sentences  being  identical,  if  ^John's"  is 
the  possessive  case,  so  also  is  u  mine ;"  and  if  in  the  possessive,  it 
can  not  be  the  nominative  to  u  is.'1  The  mistake  lies  in  considering 
mine  a  substitute  for  my  book,  whereas  it  really  is  a  substitute  only 
for  my,  including  such  a  reference  to  the  word  book  in  the  preceding 
part  of  the  sentence,  as  renders  its  repetition  in  the  second  part  not 
only  unnecessary,  but,  according  to  the  usage  of  the  language,  im- 
proper. The  difference  between  the  construction  of  the  noun  and 
the  pronoun,  in  such  sentences,  is  simply  this:  the  possessive  mine, 
thine,  etc.,  according  to  usage,  are  never  used  before  a  noun,  but  the 
possessive  of  the  noun  is  used  both  before  a  noun  and  after  it. 
When  it  is  deemed  proper  to  express  the  noun  after  the  pronoun, 
the  form  mine.  etc.  must  be  changed  for  my,  etc.  Thus,  we  can 
not  say,  u  Mine  book,"  but  "  My  book-,11  but  we  can  with  equal 
propriety  say,  u  John's  book,"  or,  "  The  book  is  John's." 

In  the  same  manner  may  be  explained  the  use  of  the  possessive 
after  transitive  verbs  in  the  active  voice,  and  after  prepositions  •, 
thus,  u  James  lost  his  books,  and  I  gave  him  mine,"  meaning  my 
books;  "  A  picture  of  the  king's,"  is  a  picture  of  (i.  e.  from)  the 
king's  pictures.  So,  "  A  book  of  mine,1'  is  a  book  of  [from]  my 
books.  u  A  friend  of  yours,"  is  a  friend  of  [from]  your  friends. 
It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  though  this  use  of  the  possessive  after 
of,  originally  and  strictly  implies  selection,  or  a  part  only,  it  has 
insensibly  come  to  be  used  when  no  such  selection  is,  or  even  can 
be,  intended.  Thus  we  may  say,  "  That  house  of  yours,"  u  that 
farm  of  yours,"  without  intending  to  imply  that  any  other  hou- 
ses or  farms  belong  to  you-,  and  when  wre  say,  "  That  head  of 
yours _."  selection  is  obviously  excluded  by  the  sense. 

The  words  belonging  to  the  other  three  divisions,  have  been 
found  more  difficult  to  arrange  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  They 
§eem  to  occupy  a  sort  of  middle  ground  between  adjectives  and 
pronouns,  and  are  sometimes  used  as  the  one,  and  sometimes  as 
the  other,  without  the  strict  and  appropriate  character  of  either. 
They  are  not  adjectives  in  sense  as,  already  shewn  (App.  VIII) ; 
but  they  are  generally  adjectives  in  construction,  having  a  noun 
expressed  or  understood,  which  they  serve  to  limit  or  restrict  in 
various  ways.  On  the  other  hand,  with  few  exceptions,  they  are 
no  often  used  without  a  noun,  or  as  its  substitute,  that  they  are  not 
improperly  regarded  as  pronouns,  though  in  a  sense  less  strict  than 
the  others  •,  thus,  "Let  each  esteem  trt/iers  better  than  themselves." 
"  Among  men,  some  are  good,  others  bad,  none  perfect."  "  M 
things  come  alike  to  all,"  etc. 

From  this  equivocal  or  rather  double  character  of  these  words 


APPENDIX.  207 

they  have  been  variously  arranged  by  different  authors.  Some. 
among  whom  are  Grant,  Crombie,  Hiley,  Sutcliffe,  Allen,  Coo- 
per, Brown,  etc.  class  them  with  adjectives,  and  call  them  "  Pro- 
nominal Adjectives;" and  others,  such  as  Lowth,  Priestly,  Smart, 
Murray,  Lennie,  Booth,  Churchill,  Wright,  Cobbet,  Kirkham, 
Smith,  and  many  others,  class  them  with  pronouns,  and  call  them 
*c  Adjective  Pronouns"  Since  all  are  agreed  about  the  use  of 
these  words,  .it  seems  in  itself  a  matter  of  less  importance  to 
which  of  these  two  classes  they  be  attached,  or  whether  they  are 
more  appropriately  called  Pronominal  Adjectives,  or  Adjective 
Pronouns.  But  as  in  the  Latin  and  Greek,  and  in  most,  if  not  all 
European  languages,  almost  all  of  the  corresponding  words  are 
ranked  uniformly  as  adjective  pronouns  •,  and  as  there  is  no  neces- 
sity for,  and  no  advantage  to  be  derived  from  a  different  classifi- 
cation, it  seems  to  be  unwise,  merely  for  the  sake  of  change 
or  the  love  of  singularity,  to  depart  from  this  arrangement  in 
English. 

XV.     THE  VERB. 

Though  there  is  little,  if  any,  difference  of  judgment  among 
grammarians  as  to  what  a  verb  is,  yet  all  have  probably  found  it 
a  difficult  ma/*»r  to  give  an  accurate,  and  at  the  same  time  a  brief 
definition  of  it ,  and,  accordingly,  nearly  all  grammars  differ  in 
their  definition  of  this  part  of  speech.  The  old  definition,  that 
u  a  verb  is  a  word  which  signifies  to  be,  to  do,  or  to  suffer," 
though  unexceptionable  as  any,  as  far  as  it  goes,  is  yet  greatly 
defective  in  stating  nothing  respecting  the  function  or  use  of  this 
part  of  speech. 

The  use  of  the  verb  in  simple  propositions  is  to  affirm  or  declare, 
and  that  of  which  it  affirms  is  called  its  subject  or  nominative. 
This  is  always  the  office  of  the  verb  in  the  indicative,  potential, 
or  subjunctive.  In  the  use  of  its  other  parts,  however,  namely, 
the  imperative,  infinitive,  and  participles,  there  is  properly  no  af- 
firmation, though*the  action  or  state  expressed  by  the  verb  in  these 
parts  is  clearly  seen  to  be  the  act  or  state  of  some  person  or  thing, 
and  which  for  that  reason  is  strictly  and  properly,  though  not 
technically,  its  subject.  Thus,  u  For  me  to  die  is  gain,"  is  a 
simple  proposition,  containing  two  verbs,  the  first  of  which,  to 
die,  in  the  infinitive,  expresses  no  affirmation,  though  it  evidently, 
without  affirming,  attributes  dying  to  a  person,  expressed  by  the 
word  me.  So  when  we  say,  u  I  see  a  man  walking,"  the  word 
walking  expresses  an  act  of  the  person  man,  though  there  is  pro- 
perly no  affirmation.  In  like  manner,  when  I  say,  "  Do  this," 
the  verb  do  attributes  action  imperatively  to  the  person  addressed, 
but  there  is  no  affirmation.  To  speak  of  "affirming  imperatively'1 
is  certainly  not  very  intelligible,  though,  for  want  of  a  better  ex- 
pression, we  sometimes  use  it  in  a  loose  sense. 

For  these  reasons,  the  definition  of  a  verb  which  says  it  is  u  a 
part  of  speech  which  asserts  or  affirms"  appears  to  me  to  be  de- 


208  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

«r 

fectivc.  It  states  one  function  of  this  class  of  words,  but  excludes, 
or  at  least  does  not  include,  others.  It  gives,  as  the  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  a  verb,  that  which  does  not  belong  to  it  in  seve- 
ral of  its  parts  and  uses.  It  is  too  restrictive. 

The  definition  formerly  given  in  this  work,  is  liable  to  an  ob- 
jection of  an  opposite  kind  •.  it  is  too  general,  and  not  sufficiently 
distinctive.  A  verb  does,  indeed,  u  express  an  action  or  state," 
but  there  are  other  words  that  do  so  also.  Nouns,  such  as  love, 
desire,  wisk,  hope,  etc.,  and  most  verbal  nouns,  such  as  eruption, 
friction,  collision,  diffusion,  progression,  etc.,  express  action  ;  and 
many  words,  both  nouns  and  adjectives,  express  a  state. 

The  definition  given  in  the  text,  though  perhaps  not  unexcep- 
tionable, occupies  a  middle  place  between  these  extremes,  avoids 
the  indefiniteness  of  the  old  definition,  and  is  probably  less  liable 
to  objection  than  most  of  those  which  have  been  given. 

XVI.     DIVISION  OF  VERBS. 

The  division  of  verbs  into  Transitive  and  Intransitive  is  now 
so  generally  adopted  by  grammarians,  instead  of  the  former  di- 
vision into  Active,  Passive,  and  Neuter;  and  its  propriety  and 
simplicity  so  obvious,  that  it  seems  now  unnecessary  to  argue 
the  point.  Of  this  division,  it  is  necessary  only  to  observe — 

1st.  It  divides  all  verbs  into  two  classes,  Transitive  and  Intran- 
sitive, distinguished  by  a  clear  and  definite  characteristic,  derived 
from  their  use  in  the  construction  of  sentences.  To  the  first,  be- 
long those  which  are  used  transitively,  whatever  be  their  mean- 
ing or  form  5  and  to  the  second,  all  that  are  used  intransitively, 
Vvrhether  they  denote  action  or  not  (§  19). 

2d.  This  arrangement  and  nomenclature  leaves  the  terms  Ac.- 
live  and  Passive  at  liberty  to  be  applied  exclusively  to  the  two 
forms  which  all  transitive  verbs  assume,  called  the  active  and 
tke  passive  voice. 

3d.  It  dispenses  with  the  term  neuter  altogether,  as  applied  to 
verbs,  and  leaves  it  to  be  appropriated  in  grammar  to  the  desig- 
nation of  gender  only. 

XVII.    MOODS. 

Some  grammarians  are  of  opinion  that  no  more  moods  or  tenses 
ought  to  be  assigned  to  the  verb  in  English,  than  are  distinguished 
by  difference  of  form  in  the  simple  verb.  This  principle  rejects 
at  once  the  whole  passive  voice  5  and  in  the  active,  retains  only 
the  present  and  past  tense  of  the  indicative  mood,  and  the  present 
of  the  subjunctive.  To  carry  out  this  principle  to  its  full  extent, 
we  should  reject  also  the  plural  number  of  the  tenses  that  are 
left-,  for  this  is  always  in  the  same  form  with  the  first  person 
singular.  This  certainly  reduces  the  English  verb  to  very  nar- 
row limits,  and  renders  it  a  very  simple  thing-,  so  simple,  indeed, 
as  to  be  of  little  use,  being  capable  of  expressing  an  action  or 
state  only  in  two  relations  of  time. 


APPENDIX.  209 

This  simplification  of  the  verb,  however,  tends  only  to  perplex 
the  language,  for  though  it  reduces  the  number  of  moods  and 
tenses,  it  does  not,  and  can  not,  reduce  the  number  of  the  forms 
of  speech,  by  which  the  different  times  or  modes  of  action  are 
expressed.  It  is  certain,  for  example,  that  we  have  such  forms 
of  speech  as.  "have  loved,"  "shall love,"  "might  love,1'  etc, 
Now  since  these  and  other  similar  forms  of  speech  express  only 
different  relations  of  time  and  manner  of  the  one  act,  "to  love," 
tl  certainly  does  seem  more  easy  and  simple  to  regard  them  as 
different  moods  and  tenses  of  the  verb  to  love,  than  to  elevate  the 
auxiliary  to  the  rank  of  a  principal  verb,  and  then  to  combine 
them  syntactically  with  the  verb  to  love.  Indeed,  to  dispose  of 
diem  in  this  way  satisfactorily,  is  riot  a  quite  easy  or  simple  mat- 
ter. For  example,  in  the  sentence,  "  I  have  written  a  letter,"  it 
is  easy  enough  to  .say  that  have  is  a  verb  transitive,  etc.,  and 
written  a  perfect  participle-,  but  when  we  inquire,  what  does 
have  govern?  what  does  written  agree  with?  a  correct  and  satis- 
factory answer  will  not  be  so  easily  found.  This  example  will 
perhaps  show  that  it  is  much  easier,  and  quite  as  satisfactory,  to 
rank  the  expression  as  a  certain  mood  and  tense  of  the  verb  "to 
write." 

This  theory  has  its  foundation  in  the  supposition  that  a  tens« 
or  mood  must  necessarily  mean  a  distinct  form  of  the  simple  verb. 
This  supposition,  however,  is  entirely  gratuitous.  There  is  no- 
thing in  the  meaning  of  the  word  mood  or  tense,  which  counte- 
nances it.  A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  action-,  tense,  ex- 
presses the  action  connected  with  certain  relations  of  time:  mood, 
represents  it  as  further  modified  by  circumstances  of  contingency, 
conditionality,  etc.  j  but  whether  these  modifications  are  expressed 
by  a  change  in  the  form  of  the  simple  verb,  or  by  its  combination 
with  certain  auxiliaries,  seems  to  be  a  matter  perfectly  indifferent. 
Indeed,  the  generally  received  opinion  is,  that  the  different  forma 
of  the  verb,  denominated  mood  and  tense,  in  Latin  and  Greek,  arc 
nothing  more  than  the  incorporation  of  the  auxiliary  with  the 
root  of  the  simple  verb.  If  so,  why  should  not  the  uniform  jux- 
taposition of  the  auxiliary  with  the  verb,  to  answer  the  same 
purpose,  be  called  by  the  same  name?  If  a  certain  auxiliary, 
connected  with  a  verb,  express  a  certain  relation  of  time,  properly 
denominated  the  future  tense-,  what  essential  difference  can  it 
make,  whether  the  two  words  combine  into  one,  or  merely  stand 
together?  On  the  whole,  then,  there  is  nothing  gained  by  the 
proposed  simplification  •.  Indeed,  on  the  contrary,  much,  even  of 
simplicity,  is  lost;  and  it  moreover  deprives  our  language  of  the 
analogy  which  it  has  in  mood  and  tense  with  other  languages, 
modern  as  well  as  ancient-,  and  if  adopted,  instead  of  smoothing 
the  path  of  the  learner,  it  would  tend  only  to  perplex  and  obscure  it. 

INDICATIVE  AND  POTENTIAL. 

The  indicative  mood  attributes  to  its  subject  the  act,  being,  or 

18* 


210  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

state  expressed  by  the  verb  simply  and  without  limitation.  The 
potential  mood  attributes  to  the  subject  not  the  act,  etc.,  expressed 
by  the  verb,  but  only  liberty,  power,  will,  or  obligation  with  re- 
spect to  it-,  that  is,  the  potential  mood  expresses  not  what  the 
subject  does  or  is,  but  only  what  it  may,  can,  must,  might, 
could,  icould,  or  should  do  or  be,  etc. 

The  auxiliaries  may,  can,  etc.,  in  the  potential  mood,  in  all 
probability,  were  at  first  independent  verbs  in  the  indicative,  fol 
lowed  by  the  verb  in  the  infinitive,  without  the  sign  to  before  it 
as  it  is  now  used  after  such  verbs  as  see,  hear,  feel,  let,  etc.  Gram- 
marians now  generally  combine  them  as  one  word,  constituting  a 
particular  form  of  the  verb,  to  which  they  have  given  the  name 
of  potential  mood,  from  its  leading  use.  The  indicative  and  po 
tential  both  declare,  but  they  declare  different  things  :  the  former 
declares  what  the  subject  does,  or  is;  the  latter,  what  it  may  or 
can,  etc.,  do  or  be.  The  declaration  made  by  the  indicative  is 
simple;  that  made  by  the  potential  is  always  complex,  contain- 
ing the  idea  of  liberty,  power,  etc.,  in  connection  with  the  act. 
u  He  writes,"  is  the  indicative  of  the  verb  to  write.  u  He  can 
write,"  is  the  indicative  of  the  verb  can,  with  the  infinitive  of  to 
write  ;  or,  combined,  the  potential  of  the  verb  to  write. 

XVIII.     THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

This  mood,  as  its  name  implies,  is  always  subjoined  to,  and 
dependent  on,  another  verb  expressed  or  understood.  "  If  he 
study,  he  will  improve  ;"  u  0  [I  wish]  that  thou  wert,"  etc. 

The  subjunctive  mood  differs  in  form  from  the  indicative  in  the 
present  tense  only;  in  the  verb  to  be,  in  the  present  and  past. 

Both  the  indicative  and  potential,  with  a  conjunctive  particle 
prefixed,  are  used  subjunctively;  that  is,  they  are  used  to  ex- 
press what  is  conditional,  or  contingent,  and  with  dependence  on 
another  verb-,  as,  "  If  he  sleeps,  he  will  do  well-,"  ;;  He  would  go 
if  he  could"  (go). 

The  conditionality  or  contingency,  etc.  expressed  by  this  mood, 
is  usually  intimated  by  such  conjunctives  as,  if,  though,  lest,  un~ 
less,  so,  etc.  prefixed,  which,  however,  make  no  part  of  the  verb. 

The  same  thing  is  sometimes  expressed  without  the  conjunc- 
tion, by  merely  putting  the  verb  or  auxiliary  before  the  subject 
or  nominative-,  as,  ,'  Had  I,"  for  u  If  I  had;"  "  Were  he,"  for 
;t  If  he  were;"  "  Had  he  gone,"  for  "  If  he  had  gone;"  "  Would 
he  but  reform,"  for  "If  he  would  but  reform,11  etc. 

Most  grammarians  consider  the  subjunctive  present  only  as  an 
abbreviated  form  of  the  future  indicative,  or  the  past  potential, 
and  that  the  supplement  may  always  be  made;  thus,  ulfhe 
study ,"  etc.  that  is,  if  he  shall  (or  should)  study,"  etc.;  "  though 
he  [should]  come,"  etc.  This  view  is  plausible,  and  may  apply 
to  the  present  tense  of  the  subjunctive  in  most  cases ;  but  it  will 
not  apply  to  the  past  subjunctive  of  the  verb  to  be,  either  as  a 
principal  or  an  auxiliary.  For  though  we  might  say,  u  If  I 


APPENDIX.  211 

should  be,"  for  "If  I  be,"  yet  we  can  not  say,  '  If  I  should  were?'* 
And  there  are  some  cases  in  which  the  present  subjunctive  form 
seems  to  be  indispensable:  as,  "  See  thou  do  it  noty'  "  If  he  do 
but  try,  he  will  succeed 5"  still — 

The  subjunctive  mood,  in  its  distinctive  form,  is  now  falling 
greatly  into  disuse.  The  tendency  appears  to  be  to  lay  it  aside, 
and  to  use  the  indicative  or  potential  in  its  stead,  wherever  it  can 
be  done.  According  to  rule,  the  subjunctive  form  is  used  only 
when  it  has  a  future  reference-,  as,  "  If  he  come  [viz.  at  a  future 
time],  he  will  be  welcome."  The  same  idea  is  expressed  by  say- 
ing," ulf  he  comes"  (186, 1.  5),  "If  he  shall  come  ;"  and  one  or  other 
of  these  expressions  is  now  generally  preferred  to  the  subjunctive. 
Formerly,  in  cases  of  supposition,  the  present  subjunctive  was 
used,  whether  it  had  a  future  reference  or  not  5  as,  "  Though  God 
be  high,  yet  hath  he  respect  to  the  lowly."  In  all  such  expressions, 
according  to  present  usage,  the  present  indicative  would  be  used-, 
thus,  "  Though  God  is  high,"  etc. 

XIX.     THE  PARTICIPLE  IN  ing  IN  A  PASSIVE  SENSE. 

According  to  the  definition,  the  passive  voice  expresses,  pas- 
sively, the  same  thing  that  the  active  does  actively.  For  exam- 
ple, Caesar  conquered  Gaul,"  and  "Gaul  was  conquered  by  Caesar," 
express  precisely  the  same  idea.  This,  however,  is  not  always 
done  by  the  regular  passive  form  in  the  present  tense,  though  it 
is  generally  done  in  the  other  tenses.  Thus,  it  will  be  felt  at 
once  that  the  expressions,  "  Caesar  conquers  Gaul,"  and  "  Gaul 
is  conquered  by  Caesar,"  do  not  express  the  same  thing. 

In  regard  to  this  matter,  there  are  evidently  two  classes  of  verbs; 
namely,  those  whose  present  passive  expresses  precisely  the  same 
thing,  passively,  as  the  active  voice  does  actively,  and  those  in 
which  it  does  not. 

I.  To  the  first  of  these  classes  belong — 

1.  All  those  verbs  which,  in  the  regular  present  passive,  imply 
a  continuance  of  the  act;  such  as,  to  love,  to  hate,  to  regard,  to 
esteem,  to  envy,  to  please,  etc.    Thus,  "James  loves  me."  and  "I 
am  loved  *by  James,"  express  precisely  the  same  idea,  and  con- 
sequently continuance  is  implied  as  much  in  the  passive  form  as 
in  the  active.     Hence,  "  is  loved,"  is  a  true  present  passive,  both 
in  form  and  meaning.    In  verbs  of  this'  class  the  progressive  form 
in  the  active  voice  is  seldom  used,  because  it  would  express  the 
same  thing  generally  as  the  common  form-,  thus,   "James  loves 
me,"  and  "  James  is  loving  me,"  express  the  same  thing. 

2.  To  this  class  belong  all  verbs  when  used  to  express  general 
truths,  or  what  is  usual  or  customary  from  time  to  time:     Thus, 
"Vinegar  dissolves  pearls-,"  "Vice  prod uces  misery -,"  "The  cob- 
bler mends  shoes -,"  "Masons  build  houses,"  etc.     These  verbs, 
used  in  this  way,  express  precisely  the  same  thing  in  the  regular 
passive  form  as  they  do  in  the   active.     Thus,  "Pearls  are  dis- 
solved by  vinegar  j"  "  Misery  is  produced  by  vice-,"  "  Shoes  an 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

mended  by  the  cobbler-"  "Houses  are  built  by  masons,"  etc  In 
verbs  used  in  this  way,  the  progressive  form  is  not  employed. 
The  use  of  it  would  change  the  meaning  from  a  general  ex- 
pression to  a  particular  act.  Thus,  "Vice  is  producing  misery," 
would  immediately  direct  the  mind,  not  to  a  general  truth,  but 
to  a  particular  case.  But^  again,  when  these  verbs  express  a 
particular  act,  and  not  a  general  truth,  the  active  and  the  passive 
present  expres^  different  ideas;  thus,  u  James  builds  a  house,'* 
represents  an  act  in  progress-,  but  when  we  say,  u  A  house  is 
built  by  Jarnes,"  the  act  is  represented  as  completed. 

3.  To  this  class  belong  all  verbs  which,  by  the  figure  called 
vision  (552-5),  are  used  in  the  present  tense  to  express  what  is 
past.  Thus,  "  Cassar  leaves  Gaul,"  crosses  the  Rubicon,  enters 
Italy."  Passively,  "  Gaul  is  left  by  Caesar,  the  Rubicon  is 
crossed,  Italy  is  entered.  In  all  these,  used  in  this  figurative  way, 
the  present  passive  expresses  the  same  thing  as  the  present, 
active. 

II.  The  second  class  of  verbs  consists  of  those  (perhaps  the 
greater  number)  whose  present  passive  implies  that  the  act  ex- 
pressed  by  the  active  voice  has  ceased,  and  the  effect  or  result 
only  remains  as  a  finished  act,  and  as  such  is  predicated  of  the 
subject.  Thus,  "  The  house  is  built."  Here  it  is  implied  that 
the  act  of  building  is  completed,  and  has  ceased-,  and  the  result, 
expressed  by  built,  is  predicated  of  the  house.  In  all  verbs  of 
this  kind,  the  past  participle,  after  the  verb  to  be,  has  reference 
to  the  state  resulting  from  the  act  as  predicated  of,  or  qualifying 
the  subject  of  the  verb,  and  not  to  the  act  itself.  Strictly  speak- 
ing, then,  the  past  participle  with  the  verb  to  be  is  not  the  pre- 
sent tense  in  the  passive  voice  of  verbs  thus  used-,  that  is,  this 
form  does  not  express  passively  the  doing  of  the  act.  These  verbs 
either  have  no  present  passive,  or  it  is  made  by  annexing  the  par- 
ticiple in  ing,  in  its  passive  sense,  to  the  verb  to  be;"  as,  "  Tha 
house  is  building.^ 

It  is  supposed  by  some  that  "is  built,"  although  in  the  form 
of  the  present  passive,  really  is  a  present-perfect-,  because  it  re- 
presents the  act  as  completed,  and  because  the  perfect-definite,  in 
Latin,  is  often  translated  by  this  form  into  English.  Due  con- 
sideration, however,  I  think  will  show  that  it  differs  quite  as 
much  from  the  present-perfect  as  it  does  from  the  present.  To  be 
satisfied  of  this,  compare  the  following  expressions:  "  This  gar- 
ment is  torn,"  merely  asserts  the  present  state  of  the  garment, 
with  no  reference  to  the  act  but  what  is  implied-,  but  when  we 
gay,  "This  garment  has  been  torn,"  the  reference  is  chiefly  to  the 
act  as  having  been  done,  with  no  reference  to  the  state  of  the 
garment  but  what  is  implied.  The  one  asserts  that  the  garment 
remains  torn,  the  other  does  not — it  may  have  been  mended-,  the 
latter  is  the  regular  passive  of  the  present-perfect'  active,  the  for- 
mer is  not.  This  will  perhaps  be  more  clearly  perceived  by 
means  of  another  example:  "This  house  has  been  painted,  but 


APPENDIX.  213 

the  paint  is  worn  off."  This  is  good  English',  but  if  we  should 
say,  "  This  house  is  painted ,  but  the  paint  is  worn  off,"  we  would 
assert  a  contradiction. 

There  is  properly  no  passive  form,  in  English,  corresponding 
to  the  progressive  form  in  the  active  voice,  except  where  it  is 
made  by  the  participle  in  ing-,  in  a  passive  sense-,  thus,  "The 
house  is  building-,"  "The  garments  are  making-,"  "Wheat  is 
selling,"  etc.  Though  such  expressions  have  been  used  in  all 
time  past  by  the  best  writers,  an  attempt  has  been  made  by  some 
grammarians  of  late,  to  banish  them  from  the  language,  and  to 
justify  and  defend  a  clumsy  solecism,  which  has  been  introduced 
within  the  last  forty  years,  chiefly  through  the  newspaper  press, 
but  which  has  gained  such  currency,  and  is  becoming  so  familiar 
to  the  ear,  that  it  seems  likely  to  prevail,  with  all  its  uncouth- 
ness  and  deformity.  I  refer  to  such  expressions  as  u  The  house 
is  being  built-,"  "The  letter  is  being  written-,"  "The  mine  is 
being  worked-,'1  "The  news  is  being  telegraphed,"  etc.  etc. 

Respecting  this  mode  of  expression,  it  may  be  noticed — 

1.  That  it  had  no  existence  in  the  language  till  within  the  last 
forty  years.     This,  indeed,   would  not  make  it  wrong,  were  it 
otherwise  unexceptionable-,  but  it  shows  that  it  is  not,  as  is  pre- 
tended, a  necessary  form;  and  in  some  measure  accounts  for  the, 
insolence  and  effrontery  with. which,  like  all  upstarts,  it  seeks  to 
override  and  bear  down  that  which  is  venerable  for  its  antiquity, 
and  commended  by  its  propriety. 

2.  This  form  of  expression,  when  analyzed,  is  found  not  to 
express  what  it  is  intended  to  express,  and  would  be  used  only 
by  such  as  are  either  ignorant  of  its  import,  or  are  careless  and 
loose  in  their  use  of  language.     To  make  this  manifest,  let  it  be 
considered,  first,  that  there  is  no  progressive  form  of  the  verb  to 
be,  and  no  need  of  it-,  hence,  there  is  no  such  expression  in  En 
lish  as  is  being.     Of  course,  the  expression  "is  being  built,"  for 
example,  is  not  a  compound  of  is  being  and  built,  but  of  is  and 
being  built;  that  is,  of  the  verb  to  be  and  the  present  participle 
passive.     Now,  let  it  be  observed  that  the  only  verbs  in  which 
the  present  participle  passive  expresses  a  continued  action,  are 
those  mentioned  above  as  the  first  class,  in  which  the  regular 
passive  form  expresses  a  continuance  of  the  action;  as,  is  lovedy 
is  desired,  etc.,  and  in  which  of  course  the  form  in  question  (it 
being  built)  is  not  required.      Nobody  would  think  of  saying, 
"  He  is  being  loved-,"  "  This  result  is  being  desired." 

In  all  other  verbs,  then,  the  present  participle  passive,  like  the 
present  tense  in  the  second  class  of  verbs  mentioned  above,  ex- 
presses, not  a  continued  action,  or  the  continued  receiving  of  an 
action,  but  that  the  action  has  ceased,  and  the  result  only  exists 
in  a  finished  state.  Thus,  "  Our  arrangements  being  made,  we 
departed-,"  "The  house  being  finished,  was  immediately  occu- 
pied-," "  Our  work  being  finished,  we  may  rest,"  etc.  In  all 
such  expressions,  the  present  participle' passive  represents  the  ae- 


214  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

tion  as  now  finished,  and  existing  only  in  its  results  (191).  This 
finished  act,  then,  can  not  be  made  unfinished  and  progressive, 
by  being  asserted  of  a  subject,  which  is  all  the  verb  to  be,  as  a 
copula,  can  express.  Hence,  it  is  manifest  that  is  being  built,  if 
it  mean  any  thing,  can  mean  nothing  more  than  is  built,  which  is 
not  the  idea  intended  to  be  expressed. 

3.  For  the  same  reason  that  is  being  built,  etc.  is  contended  for 
as  a  proper  expression,  we  should   contend  also  for,  u  Has  been 
being  built-,1'  u  Had  been  being  built-,'1  "  Shall  have  been  being: 
built 5"  u  Might  have  been  being  built-,"  u  To  be  being  built-," 
u  To  have  been  being  built:"     "Being  being  built-,"   "Having 
been  being  built.1'  When  all  these  shall  have  been  introduced,  our 
language  will  be  rich  indeed. 

4.  The  use  of  this  form  is  justified  only  by  condemning  an  es- 
tablished usage  of  the  language,   namely,  the  passive  sense  in 
some  verbs  of  the  participle  in  ing  (190).     In  reference  to  this,  it 
is  flippantly  asked.  u  What  does  the  house  build?"  "  What  does 
the  letter  write?  etc. "taking  for  granted,  without  attempting  to 
prove,  that  the  participle  in  ing   can  not  have  a  passive  sense  in 
any  verb.     The  following  are  a  few  examples  from  writers  of  the 
best  reputation,  which  this  novelty  would  condemn-.  u  While  the 
ceremony  was  performing." — Tom  Brown.  "  The  court  was  then 
holding.11 — Sir  G.  MTKenzie.    "  And  still  be  doing,  never.-done." 
Butler.     "  The  books  are  selling." — Wen's  Gram.    "  The  work 
of  the  temple  was  carrying  on." — Dr.  Owen.   uTo  know  nothing 
of  what  is  transacting  in  the  region  above  us." — Dr.  Blair.   "The 
spot  where  this  new  and  strange  tragedy  was  acting.1' — E.  Eve- 
rett.    "  The  fortress  was  building." — Irving.     u  An  attempt  is 
making  in  the  English  parliament." — D.  Webster.   "  The  church 
now  erecting  in  the  city  of  New  York.1' — N.  A.  Review.    "This 
movement  was  making." — Cooper.     "These  things  were  trans- 
acting in  England. "*~  Bancroft. 

5.  This  new  doctrine  is  in  opposition  to  the  almost  unanimous 
judgment  of  the  most  distinguished  grammarians  and  critics,  who 
have  considered  the  subject,  and  expressed  their  views  concerning 
it.    The  following  are  a  specimen:  "Expressions  of  this  kind  are 
condemned  by  some  critics-,  but  the  usage  is  unquestionably  of 
far  better  authority,  and  (according  to  my  apprehension)  in  far 
better  taste,  than  the  more  complex  phraseology  which  some  late 
writers  adopt  in  its  stead ;    as,  '  The  books  are  now  being  sold.' 7} 
Goold  Brown.     De  War  observes:   "  The  participle  in  ing  is  also 
passive  in  many  instances-,  as,  '  The  house  is  building-,1  'I  heard 
Df  apian  forming/  etc." — Quoted  in  Frazee's  Grammar,  page  49. 

'It  would  be  an  absurdity,  indeed,  to  give  up  the  only  way  we 
aave  of  denoting  the  incomplete  state  of  action  by  a  passive  form" 
(viz.  by  the  participle  in  ing  in  the  passive  sense). — Arnold?* 
English  Grammar,  p.  46.  "The  present  participle  is  often  used 
passively-,  as,  'The  ship  is  building.1  The  form  of  expression, 
Is  being  built ,  is  being  committed,  etc.,  is  almost  universally  con^ 


APPENDIX.  215 

demned  by  grammarians,  but  it  is  sometimes  met  with  in  re- 
spectable writers-,  it  occurs  most  frequently  in  newspaper  para- 
graphs and  in  hasty  compositions.  See  Worcester's  Universal 
and  Critical  Dictionary.1' — Weld's  Grammar,  p.  118  and  180. 
4 'When  we  say,  '  The  house  is  building,1  the  advocates  of  the 
new  theory  ask,  '  Building  what?1  We  might  ask,  in  turn, 
when  you  say,  'The  field  ploughs  well-,1  '  Ploughs  what?'  'Wheat 
sells  well-,'  'Sells  what?1  If  usage  allows  us  to  say,  'Wheat 
sells  at  a  dollar1,  in  a  sense  which  is  not  active,  why  may  it  not 
also  allow  us  to  s~y  wheat  is  selling  at  a  dollar,  in  a  sense  that 
is  not  active?11 — Harfs  Gram.,  p.  76.  "  The  prevailing  practice 
of  the  best  authors  is  in  favor  of  the  simple  form  5  as,  '  The  house 
is  building.111—  WcWs  School  Gram.,  p.  148.  "Several  other 
expressions  of  this  sort  now  and  then  occur,  such  as  the  new- 
fangled and  most  uncouth  solecism  '  is  being  done,''  for  the  good 
old  English  idiom  '  is  doing'' — an  absurd  periphrasis  driving  out 
a  pointed  and  pithy  turn  of  the  English  language.1' — N.  Jl.  Re 
view,  quoted  by  Mr.  Wells,  p.  148. 

This  usage  some  suppose  has  its  origin  in  the  use  of  the  verbal 
noun  after  in,  to  express  the  same  idea;  thus,  "Forty  and  six 
years  was  this  temple  in  building;'''1  "  And  the  house,  when  it  was 
in  building,  was  built  of  stone  made  ready,  so  that  there  was  nei- 
ther hammer  nor  axe  heard  in  the  house,  while  it  was  in  build' 
ing."  In  the  absence  of  emphasis,  the  in  being  indistinctly  ut» 
terecl,  came  to  be  spoken,  and  consequently  to  be  written,  a;  as, 
"While  the  ark  was  a  preparing"  (].  Pet.  iii.  20),  and  finally  to 
be  omitted  altogether.  Similar  changes  of  prepositions  we  have 
in  the  expressions,  a  going,  a  running,  a  hunting,  a  fishing, 
etc.  Others,  again,  suppose  that  this  ought  to  be  regarded  as  an 
original  idiom  of  the  language,  similar  to  the  passive  use  of  the 
infinitive  active  in  such  expressions  as,  "You  are  to  blame:"  "A 
house  to  Ut;"  "  Knives  to  grind,"  etc.  But  whether  either  of 
these  is  the  true  account  of  this  matter  or  not,  the  fact  is  certain. 
It  is  therefore  the  duty  of  the  grammarian  to  note  the  fact,  though 
he  may  be  unable  to  account  for  it. 

XX.     TWO  FIRST,  THREE  LAST,  &c. 

The  expressions,  two  first,  three  last,  and  the  like,  have  been 
opposed  and  ridiculed  by  some,  on  the  ground,  as  they  allege,  that 
there  can  be  only  one  first,  and  one  last.  The  objectors  evidently 
have  not  well  considered  their  position-,  for — 

1 .  The  terms  first  and  last  do  not  necessarily  mean  only  one. 
First,  according  to  Webster,  means,  "  preceding  all  others.11    The 
two  first,  then,  means  the  two  preceding  all  others,  and  the  three 
last  means  the  three  succeeding  all  others  -,  expressions  in  which 
there  is  surely  nothing  either  ridiculous  or  absurd. 

2.  If  we  say,   "  The  first  days  of  summer;"  "  The  first  years 
of  our  life-,'1   "The  last  days  of  Pompeii,"  which  nobody  doubts. 
then,  it  is  not  true  that  there  can  be  only  one  first  and  one  last 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

and  so  the  ground  of  the  objection  fails.     If  we  can  say,  a  The 
last  days  of  summer,"  why  not  the  two  last,  or  the  three  last  ? 

3.  The  expression  objected  to  is  used  by  the  best  authorities  in 
the  language,  and  has  been  in  use  hundreds  of  years-,  and  there- 
fore, on  the  well-known  maxim,  u  Usage  is  the  law  of  language," 
even  if  it  were  absurd,  it  can  not  be  rejected.    The  following  are 
examples,  most  of  them  mentioned  by  Mr.  Wells  -.  "  The  four  first 
acts." — Bp.  Berkeley.     "  The  three  first  monarchies." — Warbur- 
ton.     "The  two  first  persons." — Latham^s  Eng.  Gram.     "  My 
two  last  letters." — Jlddison.      "The  two  first  lines."  —  Blair. 
"The  three  first  generations."— E.  Everett.      "The  two  first 
years." — Bancroft.     "  The  two  first  days." — Irving.     "  The  two 
nrst  cantos." — Ji.  H.  Everett.     "  The  four  first  centuries." — Pres- 
cott.     "The  two  last  productions." — N.  A.  Review.     "The  four 
first  are — poetical. "—Cheever.     "The  three  first  of  his  longer 
poems."— Southey.     "The  two  last  schools."— Johnson.     "The 
six  first  French  kings." — Macaulay. 

4.  This  expression  is,  in  some  cases,  evidently  better  than  the 
other.     It  is  probably  always  so,  when  the  number  characterized 
as  fir  at  or  last  constitutes  a  majority  of  the  whole.     When  we  say, 
"  the  first  four,"  there  is  evidently  a  reference  to  a  second  four, 
or  a  last  four.     But  if  the  first  four  constitute  a  majority  of  the 
whole,  there  remains  no   second  four  to  justify  the  reference. 
Jims,  when  we  say,   "The  first  four  acts  of  a  play  were  well 
performed,"  there  remains  only  one  to  which  any  other  reference 
can  be  made.     On  the  other  hand,  wrhen  a  whole  is  divided  into 
equal  portions,  each  containing  a  certain  number,  as  the  recurrence 
of  the  census  every  five  years — of  the  Olympic  games  every  four 
— of  the  sabbath  every  seven  days — of  four  lines  in  each  stanza 
of  a  poem,  and  the  like — then  the  expression,  first  four,  second 
four,  last  four,  etc.,  is  preferable,  because  it  implies  a  reference 
to  other  portions  of  equal  extent.     Also,  even  when  there  is  no 
such  reference,   it  is  often  properly  used,   especially  when  the 
number  is  large/    as,   "The  first  hundred-,''    "The  last  thou- 
sand," etc. 

5.  Several  distinguished  scholars  and  grammarians  have  ex- 
amined this  point,  and  expressed  their  views  respecting  it  as  fol- 
lows -.  "It  has  been  doubted  whether  the  cardinal  should  precede 
or  follow  the  ordinal  numeral."     Atterbury  says  in  one  of  his 
letters  to  Pope-.  "Not  but  that  the  four  first  lines  are  good." 
u  We  conceive  the  expression  to  be  quite  correct,  though  the  other 
form  be  often  employed  to  denote  the  same  conception." — Crom- 
bie's  English  Syntax,  p.  240.     "  Some  grammarians  object  to  the 
use  of  the  numerals  tico,  four,  etc.,  before  the  adjectives  first 
and  last.     There  seems,  however,  to  be  no  good  reason  for  the 
objection,  and  the  expressions  two  first,  two  last,  etc.,  are  fully 
sanctioned  by  good  usage." — Wells' s   Grammar,  p.   137.     The 
following  is  a  note  on  the  same  page  :  "It  has  been  fashionable 
of  late  to  write  the  first  three,  and  so  on,  instead  of  the  three 


APPENDIX.  217 

fit  st.  People  write  in  this  way  to  avoid  the  seeming  absurdity 
of  implying  that  more  than  one  thing  can  be  first;  but  it  is  at 
least  equally  as  absurd  to  talk  about  the  first  four,  when,  as  often 
happens,  there  is  no  second  four." — Arnold.  "  Surely  if  there 
can  be  only  one  last,  one  first,  there  can  be  only  'a  last  one,'  'a 
first  one.'  I  need  only  observe,  that  usage  is  decidedly  in  favor 
of  the  former  phraseology." — Grant. 

uThe  only  argument  against  the  use  of  two  first,  and  in  favor 
of  substituting  first  two,  so  far  as  I  can  recollect,  is  this  :  In  the 
nature  of  things,  there  can  be  only  one  first  and  one  last  in  any 
series  of  things.  Bat  is  it  true  that  there  can  never  be  more  than 
one  first,  and  one  last  ?  If  it  be  so,  then  the  adjectives  first  and 
last  must  always  be  of  the  singular  number,  and  can  never  agree 
with  nouns  in  the  plural.  ;  We  are  told  that  the  first  years  of  a 
lawyer's  practice  are  seldom  very  lucrative.'  '  The  poet  tells  us 
that  his  first  essays  were  severely  handled  by  the  critics,  but  his 
last  efforts  have  been  well  received.'  Examples  like  these  might 
be  produced,  without  number-,  they  occur  everywhere,  in  all  our 
standard  wrritars.  *  *  *  When  a  numeral  adjective,  and  a 
qualifying  epithet,  both  refer  to  the  same  noun,  the  general  rule 
of  the  English  language  is  to  place  the  numeral  first,  then  the 
qualifying  epithet,  and  then  the  noun.  Thus  we  say,  '  The  two 
wise  men,'  '  The  two  tall  men-,'  and  not  'The  wise  two  men,' 
'  The  tall  two  men.'  And  the  same  rule  holds  in  superlatives. 
We  say,  '  The  two  wisest  men,'  v  The  two  tallest  men  5'  and  not 
*  The  wisest  tivo  men,'  ;  The  tallest  two  men.'  Now,  if  this  be 
admitted  to  be  the  general  rule  of  the  English  language,  then  it 
follows  that  generally  we  should  say,  '  The  two  first S  '  The  two 
last,'  etc.,  rather  than  ;  The  first  two?  '  The  last  two,''  etc.  This, 
I  say,  should  generally  be  the  order  of  the  words.  Yet  +here  are 
some  cases  in  which  it  seems  preferable  to  say.  '  The  first  two* 
1  The  last  two,'  etc."— Dr.  Murdoch. 

XXI.    FIRST  AND  SECOND,  &c. 

Two  or  more  adjectives  connected,  without  an  article  interve- 
ning, belong  to  the  same  noun-  as  u  A  red  and  white  rose-,"  that 
is,  one  rose  partly  red  and  partly  white.  Hence,  care  should  be 
taken  to  see  that  the  qualities  expressed  by  adjectives  so  used  be 
consistent,  or  such  as  maybe  found  in  one  object.  Thus,  it  would 
be  improper  to  say,  "  An  old  and  young  man-,"  "  A  round  and 
square  hole-."  "  A  hot  and  cold  spring-,"  because  a  man  can  not 
be  old  and  young  at  the  same  time;  nor  a  hole  round  and  square; 
nor  a  spring  hot  and  cold.  Hence — 

When  two  or  more  adjectives  express  qualities  that  belong  to 
different  objects  of  the  same  name,  and  that  name  expressed  only 
with  the  last,  the  article  should  be  placed  before  each  adjective; 
thus,  "  A  red  and  a  white  rose"  means  two  roses;  one  red,  and 
one  white.  In  this  case,  it  makes  no  difference  whether  the 
qualities  expressed  by  the  adjectives  be  consistent  or  not,  since 

19 


218  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

they  belong  to  different  individuals.  Thus,  we  can  say,  "A  young 
and  an  old  man-,1'  "  A  round  and  a  square  hole-,"  "  a  hot  and  a 
cold  spring-,"  that  is,  one  man  young,  and  another  old.  etc.  It 
is  therefore  manifest  that  we  can  not  properly  say,  "  The  first 
and  second  page-,"  "The  fifth  and  sixth  verse-,"  "The  Old  and 
New  Testament -,"  because  no  page  can  be  at  once  first  and  second 
— no  verse  fifth  and  sixth,  and  no  Testament  Old  and  New.  It 
is  equally  improper  in  principle  to  say,  u  The  first  and  second 
pages,r>  u  The  fifth  and  sixth  verses,"  because  two  adjectives  can 
not  be  joined  with  a  word  jointly  which  can  not  be  joined  with  it 
sepajately.  We  can  not  say,  "  the  first  pages,"  nor  "the  second 
pages.'1'1  when  we  mean  but  one  first  and  one  second.  Besides, 
when  the  ellipsis  is  supplied,  it  stands  "  the  first  page  and  the 
second  page  /"  and  the  omission  of  the  first  noun  can  not,  on  any 
correct  principle,  affect  the  number  of  the  second.  In  many  cases, 
too.  the  use  of  the  plural,  if  it  would  relieve  from  the  absurdity 
of  uniting  inconsistent  qualities  in  an  object,  will  as  certainly 
lead  to  ambiguity.  For  if,  to  avoid  the  absurdity  of  saying  "  the 
old  and  young  man,"  we  say  "the  old  and  young  men,"  the  latter 
expression  may  mean  fifty,  or  a  hundred,  or  any  number  of  men, 
instead  of  two-,  one  young  and  one  old.  Notwithstanding,  how- 
ever, usage  has  prevailed  over  principle  in  this  as  well  as  in  other 
cases-,  and  it  has  become  quite  common  to  say,  "  The  first  and 
second  verses-,"  "  The  Old  and  New  Testaments-,"  "  The  hot  and 
cold  springs-,"  "  The  indicative  and  subjunctive  moods,"  etc, 
When  no  ambiguity  exists  in  the  use  of  such  expressions,  they 
must  be  tolerated.  The  correct  expression,  however,  in  all  cases 
in  which  one  is  intended,  is  made  by  repeating  the  article  with  the 
adjective,  and  retaining  the  noun  in  the  singular  ;  thus,  "  The 
first  and  the  second  verse-,"  "  The  Old  and  the  New  Testament -," 
"  The  hot  and  the  cold  spring,"  etc.  j  or,  "  The  first  verse  and  th*» 
second,"  etc. 


QUESTIONS. 


GRAMMAR  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY.       §§   1,  2. 

What  is  Grammar?  What  is  its  object  as  a  science? — as  an 
art?  What  is  English  Grammar?  Into  what  parts  is  it  dirided 
Of  what  does  Orthography  treat? — Etymology? — Syntax? — Pro- 
sody? Of  what  does  Orthography  treat  besides  letters  ?  What 
is  a  letter  ?  How  many  letters  are  in  the  English  Alphabet  ? 
How  are  they  divided  ?  What  is  a  vowel  ?  What  letters  are 
vowels  ?  What  is  a  consonant  ?  What  letters  are  consonants  ? 
When  are  w  and  y  vowels? — when  consonants ?  What  is  a  diph- 
thong?— a  proper  diphthong? — an  improper  diphthong? — a  triph- 
thong? 

What  is  a  syllable?  How  do  we  know  how  many  syllables  a 
word  contains?  What  is  a  monosyllable? — a  dissyllable? — a  tri- 
syllable— a  polysyllable?  What  is  syllabication?  What  is  the 
general  rule  for  dividing  words  into  syllables?  When  should  a 
hyphen  be  placed  between  two  words?  How  should  words  be 
divided  at  the  end  of  a  line? 

§  2.  What  is  spelling?  How  is  proficiency  in  spelling  to  be 
acquired?  What  is  the  first  general  rule? — the  second?  —  the 
third  ?— the  fourth?— the  fifth  ?— the  sixth?— the  seventh?— the 
eighth? 

ETYMOLOGY  AND  PARTS  OP  SPEECH.       §§  3,  4. 

Of  what  does  Etymology  treat?  What  are  words?  How  arc 
words  divided  in  respect  of  their  formation  ? — of  their  form  ? — 
of  signification  and  use?  What  is  a  primitive  word? — a  deriva- 
tive?— a  simple? — a  compound?  What  is  a  declinable  word? — 
an  indeclinable?  How  many  parts  of  speech  are  there  in  En- 
glish? Which  are  declinable  ? — indeclinable  ?  What  is  a  sub- 
stantive ?  How  is  the  term  substantive  used  in  this  Grammar  ? 
What  is  Parsing  ?  How  is  a  word  parsed  etymologically  ? — 
syntactically? 

NOUN.       §§5-11. 

§  5.  What  is  a  noun  ?  Into  what  two  kinds  are  nouns  divi- 
ded ?  What  is  a  proper  noun  ? — a  common  noun  ?  What  is  the 
use  of  proper  nouns? — of  common  nouns?  How  do  proper  nouns 


220  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

become  common?  How  do  common  nouns  become  proper?  What 
is  the  usual  subdivision  of  common  nouns?  What  is  a  collective 
noun  ? — an  abstract  noun  ? — a  verbal  noun  ?  What  are  the  acci- 
dents of  the  noun? 

§  6.  PERSON. — What  is  person?  How  many  persons  are  there! 
When  is  a  noun  in  the  first  person? — in  the  second? — in  the  third? 

§  7.  GENDER.  What  is  gender?  How  many  genders  are  there? 
What  nouns  are  masculine? — feminine? — neuter?  How  many 
ways  of  distinguishing  the  sex  are  there?  What  is  the  first? 
(Give  examples) — the  second?  (Give  examples) — the  third?  (Give 
examples) .  What  is  meant  by  common  gender  ?  When  are  neu- 
ter nouns  to  be  regarded  as  masculine  or  feminine?  When  the 
sex  of  an  animal  is  not  known  to  us,  what  gender  do  we  assign  to 
it  ?  How  do  we  consider  those  of  inferior  size?  When  does 
the  masculine  term  include  the  female  as  well  as  the  male  ? 

§$  8,  9,  10.  NUMBER.  What  is  number?  What  numbers  have 
nouns?  What  does  the  singular  denote? — the  plural?  How  do 
nouns  commonly  form  the  plural?  What  is  the  first  special  rule? 
its  exceptions?  How  do  nouns  that  end  in  y  after  a  consonant, 
form  the  plural? — in  y  after  a  vowel? — in /or  fel  What  are  the 
exceptions?  What  nouns  are  irregular  in  the  plural?  What  nouns 
have  both  a  regular  and  irregular  form?  How  do  some  compounds 
form  the  plural? — words  from  foreign  languages?  (Give  exam- 
ples). Have  proper  names  commonly  a  plural?  Why?  When 
have  they  a  plural?  have  usually  the  sin- 

gular only? — the  plural  only? — the  same  form  in  both? — are  plural 
in  form,  but  singular  in  construction? — singular  or  plural  in  con- 
struction? 

$  11.  CASE.  What  is  case?  What  cases  have  nouns?  How 
is  the  nominative  used? — the  possessive? — the  objective?  Which 
cases  are  alike?  How  is  the  possessive  formed  in  the  singular? — 
in  the  plural? — in  the  plural  not  ending  in  s  ?  For  what  is  the 
apostrophe  and  s  an  abbreviation?  When  is  the  *  omitted  after 
an  apostrophe  in  the  singular.  What  is  equivalent  to  the  pos- 
sessive case?  When  should  this  expression  be  used  instead  of  the 
possessive?  How  is  a  noun  parsed  etymologically? 

THE  ARTICLE.       §   12. 

What  is  an  article?  What  is  its  use?  What  are  the  articles  t 
What  is  a  or  an  called? — why3  What  is  the  called? — whv? 


QUESTIONS.  221 

How  is  a  noun  without  an  article  taken?     Before  what  letters  is 
a  used? — an?  When  is  a  used  before  a  vowel?     When  is  an  used 
before  hi     How  is  an  article  parsed  etymological iy. 
THE  ADJECTIVE.       §§   13,   14. 

§  13.  What  is  an  adjective?  What  is  meant  by  qualifying  a 
noun?  When  may  an  adjective  qualify  a  pronoun?  What  else 
may  it  qualify  in  this  position?  When  do  nouns  become  adjectives? 
When  are  adjectives  used  as  nouns?  What  are  adjectives  called 
that  express  number?  How  many  classes  of  numerals  are  there? 
What  are  the  cardinal  numerals?  What  do  they  express?  What 
are  the  ordinal  numerals?  What  do  they  express?  How  are 
compound  numerals  made  ordinal? 

§14.  COMPARISON.  What  degrees  of  comparison  have  adjec- 
tives? What  does  the  positive  express? — the  comparative? — the 
superlative?  How  are  adjectives  of  one  syllable  compared — of 
two  or  more  ?  How  are  dissyllables  in  le  after  a  mute  compared? 
— dissyllables  in  y  ?  What  classes  of  adjectives  do  not  admit  of 
comparison  ?  (Give  examples  in  each).  Of  what  degree  are  su- 
perior ,  inferior,  and  the  like?  Why  are  they  not  comparatives? 
What  is  meant  by  the  superlative  of  eminence  ?  How  is  the  sig- 
nification of  the  positive  sometimes  diminished?  What  adjectives 
are  compared  irregularly  ?  (Compare  them).  How  is  much  ap- 
plied ? — many  ? — elder  and  eldest  ? — older  and  oldest  ? 

PRONOUNS.      §§  15-18. 

§  15.  What  is  a  PRONOUN?  Into  what  classes  are  pronouns 
divided?  What  are  the  personal  pronouns?  (Decline  them). 
What  pronouns  are  of  the  first  person?  Why? — of  the  second? 
Why? — of  the  third  ?  Why?  What  are  the  compound  personal 
pronouns?  In  what  cases  are  they  used?  For  what  purpose  are 
they  used  in  the  nominative  ? — in  the  objective  ?  How  is  we  used 
hi  proclamations,  etc.  ?  In  what  style  is  thou  used  ?  What  is  used 
for  thou  in  the  common  style  ?  How  is  it  used  before  the  verb  to 
be  ?  How  are  personal  pronouns  parsed  ? 

§  16.  RELATIVE.  What  is  a  relative  pronoun  ?  (Name  them). 
Which  are  declinable  ?  Which  are  indeclinable  ?  (Decline  who — 
which).  To  what  is  who  applied  ? — which  ?  How  is  which  ap- 
plied in  the  Bible  ?  How  is  that  used  as  a  relative  ?  To  what  ia 
it  applied  ?  To  what  is  the  relative  what  applied  ?  When  is  it 
used  ?  To  what  ia  it  equivalent  ?  What  relatives  are  sometime* 


*229  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

ased  as  adjectives?  What  are  the  compound  relatives?  To  what 
are  they  equivalent  ?  What  are  who,  which  and  what  in  respon- 
sive sentences?  How  is  the  gender  and  number  of  the  relative 
determined  ?  How  are  relatives  parsed  ? 

§17.  INTERROGATIVES.  What  pronouns  are  employed  in  ask- 
ing questions  ?  What  are  they  then  called  ?  What  interrogative 
is  applied  to  persons?  What,  to  things  ?  How  are  the  mterro- 
gatives  who,  which,  and  what  distinguished  when  applied  to  per- 
sons  ?  What  does  whether  mean  ?  How  is  it  now  used  ? 

ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS.       §   18. 

What  are  adjective  pronouns  ?  Into  what  classes  are  they  di- 
vided ? 

POSSESSIVES.  What  is  a  possessive  adjective  pronoun  ?  (Name 
them).  Tp  what  is  the  possessive  pronoun  equivalent  in  mean- 
ing ?  How  does  it  differ  in  use  from  the  possessive  case  ?  What 
are  his  and  her  when  followed  by  a  substantive  ? — when  not  fol- 
lowed by  a  substantive  ?  When  are  mine  and  thine  used  as  pos 
sessives  ? 

DISTRIBUTIVES.  What  is  a  distributive  adjective  pronoun  ? 
(Name  them) .  What  does  each  denote  ? — every  ? — either  ?— 
neither  ? 

DEMONSTRATIVES.  What  is  a  demonstrative  pronoun  ?  (Name 
them).  What  other  words  maybe  called  demonstratives  ?  When 
is  that  a  relative  ? — when  a  demonstrative  ? — when  a  conjunction  ? 

INDEFINITES.  What  are  indefinite  pronouns  ?  (Name  the  inde- 
finite pronouns) .  How  is  none  used  ?  How  is  an  adjective  pro* 
noun  parsed  ? 

VERBS.      §§  19-32. 

§  19.  What  is  a  verb  ?  What  is  its  use  in  simple  propositions? 
What  is  the  subject  of  a  verb  ?  Into  what  two  classes  are  verbs 
divided  ?  What  is  a  transitive  verb  ?  What  forms  has  it  ?  What 
is  an  intransitive  verb  ?  What  does  the  word  transitive  mean  as 
applied  to  verbs  ? — intransitive  ?  What  is  the  usual  form  of  in- 
transitive verbs  ?  In  how  many  ways  are  intransitive  verbs  ren- 
dered transitive  ?  What  are  they  ?  How  are  transitive  verbs 
distinguished  from  intransitive  ?  What  is  the  first  method  ?— 
fhe  second  ? — the  third1*  How  is  a  transitive  verb  used  when  it 
is  without  an  object  ? 

How  are  verbs  divided  in  respect  of  form  ?     What  is  a  regular 


223 

verb  ?— an  irregular  ? — a  defective  verb  ?  To  which  of  these 
classes  do  auxiliaries  belong  ? — impersonal  verbs  ? 

§20.  AUXILIARY  VERBS.  What  is  an  auxiliary  verb  ?  In 
what  tenses  are  they  used  ?  (Name  them  in  the  present  tense — 
in  the  past.)  What  verbs  are  used  both  as  auxiliaries  and  prin- 
cipal verbs  ?  What  does  shall  imply? — will1? — may  ? — can?  In 
what  tense  are  will  and  shall  auxiliaries  ? — may  or  can  ?  How 
are  will  and  shall  distinguished  in  expressing  resolution  or  pur- 
pose ? — in  expressing  simple  futurity? — in  interrogations  ?  How 
tre  verbs  inflected  ? 

§  21.  VOICE.  What  is  voice  ?  In  English  how  many  voices 
are  there  ?  (Name  them).  What  kind  of  verbs  have  two  voices? 
How  does  the  active  voice  represent  the  subject  ? — -the  passive  ? 
Are  any  verbs  used  both  in  a  transitive  and  an  intransitive  sense? 
(Give  an  example). 

§22.  MOODS.  What  is  mood  ?  How  many  moods  have  verbs? 
(Name  them).  How  is  a  verB  used  in  the  indicative  mood  ? — in 
the  potential  ? — in  the  subjunctive  ? — in  the  imperative  ? — in  the 
infinitive  ?  How  does  the  declaration  made  by  the  indicative 
mood  differ  from  that  made  by  the  potential  ?  How  does  the 
lubjunctive  differ  in  form  from  the  indicative  ?  Why  is  the  sub- 
junctive mood  so  called  ?  Is  the  indicative  ever  used  subjunc- 
tively  ? — is  the  potential  ?  What  persons  has  the  imperative 
mood  ?  What  is  the  true  character  of  the  infinitive  ? 

§§  23,  24.  TENSES.  What  are  tenses  ?  How  is  time  naturally 
divided  ?  In  each  of  these,  how  may  an  action,  etc.  be  repre- 
sented ?  How  many  tenses  are  there  in  English  ?  (Name  them). 
What  does  the  present  tense  express  ? — the  present-perfect  ? — 
the  past  ? — the  past-perfect  ? — the  future  ? — the  future  peifect  ? 
What  is  a  simple  tense  ? — a  compound  ?  Which  tenses  are  sim- 
ple ? — which  compound  ?  What  different  things  is  the  present 
tense  in  the  simple  form,  used  to  express  ? — the  present-perfect  * 
To  what  tense  in  Latin  does  the  present-perfect  in  English  cor- 
respond ?  What  tenses  has  the  indicative  mood  ? — the  potential? 
— the  subjunctive  ? — the  imperative? — the  infinitive  ? — the  par- 
ticiple? 

§  25.  PARTICIPLES.  What  is  a  participle  ?  Why  so  called? 
How  many  participles  have  verbs  in  the  active  voice  ?  (Name 
them) — in  the  passive  ?  (Name  them).  How  does  the  present 
participle  active  always  end  ?  Has  it  ever  a  passive  sense  ? 


224  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

(Give  an  example).  Does  the  past  participle  active  differ  in 
form  from  the  past  participle  passive  ?  Is  the  perfect  participle 
simple  or  compound  ?  When  do  participles  become  adjectives  ? 
What  participles  may  become  adjectives  in  this  way  ?  (Give  ex- 
amples). What  participles  are  used  as  verbal  nouns  ?  (Give  an 
example  of  each) .  When  a  participle  is  so  used,  what  cases  does 
t  have 

§  26.  NUMBER  AND  PERSON.  How  many  numbers  have  verbs  ? 
in  each  of  these,  how  many  persons  are  there  ?  Of  what  doet 
.he  first  person  assert? — the  second? — the  third  ? 

§  27.  CONJUGATION.  What  is  the  conjugation  of  a  verb  ? 
What  two  forms  has  the  verb  in  the  active  voice  ?  What  does 
the  common  form  express  ? — the  progressive  ?  How  is  a  verb 
rendered  emphatic  in  the  present  ? — in  the  past  ? — in  the  com- 
pound tenses  ?  What  are  called  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb  ? 
What  is  conjugating  a  verb  ?  (Conjugate  the  verb  to  love  in  the 
active  voice  •, — inflect  it  through  ail  its  parts) .  How  is  a  verb 
parsed? 

§  28.  FORMS.  How  is  a  verb  made  to  deny  ?  How,  in  the 
infinitive  and  participles?  How  is  a  verb  made  to  ask  a  question? 
How  are  interrogative  sentences  made  negative. 

$  29,  30,  31.  To  BE,  etc.  Conjugate  the  irregular  verb  to  be. 
(Inflect  it).  How  is  the  progressive  form  of  the  verb  made?  How 
is  the  passive  voice  formed?  Conjugate  to  love  in  the  passive 
voice.  (Inflect  it). 

§  32.  IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS.  What  is  an  irre- 
gular verb  ?  Conjugate  abide,  etc.  (see  the  list).  What  is  a  de- 
fective verb  ?  What  are  the  defective  verbs  ?  What  is  an  im- 
personal verb  ?  (Give  examples).  Properly  speaking,  what  is 
the  pronoun  it  before  the  impersonal  verb  ? 

ADVERBS.       §§  33,  34. 

What  is  an  adverb  ?  Into  what  classes  have  adverbs  been  di- 
f  ided  ?  What  is  the  chief  use  of  adverbs  ?  What  kind  of  adverbs 
idmit  of  comparison  ?  What  adverbs  are  compared  irregularly  ? 
(Give  examples  of  words  made  into  adverbs,  by  prefixing  a). 
What  are  as  and  so  in  comparisons  ?  What  is  an  adverbial 
phrase  ?  How  is  there  used  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  ? 
How  is  an  adverb  parsed  ? 


QUESTIONS.  225 

PREPOSITIONS.      §  35. 

What  is  a  preposition  ?  Of  the  related  words,  what  is  that  be* 
fore  the  preposition  called  ? — that  after  it  ?  Why  are  words  of 
this  class  called  prepositions  ?  (Give  a  list  of  prepositions).  What 
case  does  a  preposition  require  after  it  ?  What  does  a  preposition 
become  when  it  has  no  object?  Are  prepositions  ever  understood? 
(Give  an  example).  What  are  inseparable  prepositions  ?  (Name 
them),*  How  are  prepositions  parsed  ? 

INTERJECTIONS.       §  36. 

What  is  an  interjection  ?     Have  interjections  any  grammatical 
connection  with  other  words  in  a  sentence  ?     What  is  the  differ- 
ence between  0  and  Oh?     How  are  interjections  parsed  ? 
CONJUNCTIONS.      §  37. 

What  is  a  conjunction  ?  Into  what  classes  are  conjunctions 
divided  ?  What  is  the  use  of  copulative  conjunctions  ? — of  dis- 
junctive ?  What  are  the  principal  copulatives — disjunctives  ? 
What  does  and  denote  ?  What  do  or  and  nor  denote  ?  How  are 
conjunctions  parsed? 

PARSING.       §§  38,  39. 

What  is  parsing  ?  How  is  one  part  of  speech  to  be  distin- 
guished from  another  ?  How  do  we  know  when  a  word  is  a  noun  ? 
— an  adjective  ? — a  pronoun  ? — a  verb  ? — an  adverb  ? — a  preposi- 
tion*— an  interjection  ? — a  conjunction  ?  What  are  the  general 
principles  to  be  kept  in  view  in  parsing  ?  Give  specimens  of 
parsing. 


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